Australasian Biotechnology (backfiles) AusBiotech ISSN: 1036-7128 Vol. 6, Num. 5, 1996

The WA Australian Biotechnology Association Essay Competition

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This competition was held recently and was open to all Year 11 and 12 students in Western Australia. The essay topic was Biotechnology and human health: present and future applications. Judging of the essays was by a panel of members of the ABA in Western Australia chaired by Professor Pat Carnegie, Professor of Biotechnology at Murdoch University. The prizes for the essay competition were funded by Biotech International Ltd. Presentation of the prizes took place at Technology Park, Bentley on Monday, 7th October. The winner was Anna Turner, a Year 11 student at Mount Lawley Senior High School. The runner-up was Adrian West. The ABA congratulates Anna on her fine effort and is very pleased to reproduce her essay in full below.

Anna Turner's Winning Essay

Biotechnology is an old science and a developing art. We now have the ability to harness the cellular basis of life and alter or improve it, we can provide people of this world with food, medicine and cures for killer diseases that fifty years ago we did not possess. Biotechnology is advancing into many specialised areas which bring about improvement in the quality of life, and human health in particular. We are now moving into gene therapy, gene mapping, monoclonal antibodies, and DNA fingerprinting, but the best known form of biotechnology is genetic engineering. This involves altering the genes of a living organism. Other forms include cell cultures (growth of animal or plant cells), M.A. (specialised protein molecules).

Antibodies and vaccines are used in the cure and prevention of diseases that are particularly harmful to the human race. After many years of development and heavy research we have discovered that vaccines work by alerting the body's immune system to recognise specific foreign invaders, like a virus, quickly enough before it can do any real damage. Although reliable vaccines have been developed for many diseases, the vaccine influenza virus was more complicated to produce. The influenza virus pathogen is able to change and mutate its surface proteins from year to year, this is the part that the body recognises. The actual inner structure is left unchanged but if the body cannot recognise the disease then antibodies cannot act to prevent illness. The influenza virus which gives a disease called influenza, uses its RNA to record its structure. Most viruses use their DNA to record such things.

Many current vaccines work only with the humoral immune system - the antibody bases defenses in the blood and lymph.

Antibodies are specifically designed proteins that come in a variety of shapes. They float about in the blood stream till they meet a foreign protein that fits, like a lock and key combination. The infected cell is then carted away to be disposed of and antibodies are sent there from all over the body to stop these invaders spreading. Vaccines give the immune system something to remember.

Most vaccines are made up of killed microorganisms, inactivated bacterial toxins or weakened (attenuated) live organisms. Each vaccine preserves the part of the disease agent that triggers the immune response. Live vaccines tend to cause cell mediated and secretory antibody immunity. Killed vaccines preserve the key units called 'protective immunogens', and immunogenic proteins stimulate the immune reaction. Immunogenic proteins can be transferred to harmless bacterium or virus, which can then serve as the vaccinating agent. Genetic engineering offers a highly efficient means of producing vaccines made only of these proteins, thus reducing the risk of actual infection.

There is a vaccine for Hepatitis B, but if only stimulates antibodies. The one large problem is that a vaccination is a long-winded procedure - recipients need three needles over a six month period. In countries where Hepatitis B is in epidemic proportions, this is far too slow a procedure to be useful. Researchers at the University of Ottawa are in the process of developing a DNA vaccine, that produces a strong cellular immune response, with the hope that this could be effective as a treatment for people who already have the disease (Hepatitis B). Scientists are also trying to produce a reliable vaccine against AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) virus, herpes simplex virus and cancer.

One possibility of biotechnology is the enormous task of completely mapping the human genome. The process could involve using recombinant DNA technology to synthesise 'new' proteins and to produce a sequence bank for proteins and nucleic acids. The benefits of the Human Genome Project would be outstanding because defective genes are responsible for over 7000 genetic disorders, including Cystic Fibrosis and Haemophilia. The genome map could be used to straighten out the kinks as it were to lead to the obliteration of many genetic disorders or diseases. The usual ways to detect genetic diseases is to have an ultrasound examination late in the pregnancy, to see if the organs are formed properly; to have a chromosomal analysis of foetal tissue, usually between the 12th and 17th week of pregnancy, or one can have an assessment of marker proteins, usually carried out (in Australia) on all new born babies. It determines if certain amino acids that affect metabolism are present in normal quantities. DNA probes can also be used; this is a genetic screening technique used to detect major structural damage to genes. As a result of the Human Genome Project, it may be possible to identify many more of the genes that are responsible for disease, then one could manipulate the genes in such a way as to prevent those genes from causing disease in children whose parents carry the disease-causing gene but do not have the disease (commonly known as carriers). Or they could identify whether an individual has a particular gene sequence that makes them susceptible to a certain disease, perhaps as they age. At this early stage in the project, scientists are hoping the information obtained from the Human Genome Project will allow them to identify a person carrying genetic diseases and provide early and more beneficial treatment.

Monoclonal antibodies are mass produced that are produced from the animal cell 'hybridomas'. They are continuously producing a specific type of antibody from a pure hybridoma cell. Monoclonal antibodies can lead to developments in diagnosing many diseases (from their symptoms). Advancements in production of monoclonal antibodies can lead to discovering anti-cancer groups. One can even develop biosensors. Biosensors are sensors that contain a biological component, such as antibody or enzyme. These can be used to monitor such things as blood glucose levels. With the aid of technology, one could possibly develop a watch like biosensor that can read your vital statistics, etc, like temperature and pulse, all using a form of skin biosensor. In Japan, toilet biosensors are in regular use. They analyse your excretion, if they find quantities of urea and uric to indicate kidney disease, lactate - indicator of stress, haemoglobin showing bleeding, antibodies showing infections or cancer, protein concentration showing functioning of the digestive system. In general, biosensors can give improved safety and monitoring of environment, food and chemical industries.

On the other hand, developments in biotechnology that are involving human health do not necessarily always mean prevention. Mass produced human tissue cultures could reduce the need for donated organ transplants and plastic implants. Doctors previously used the skin of a corpse to smother burns and to patch up wounds. Because the tissue is mature and foreign, the patient's immune system soon rejects it and large sections of the victim's skin has to be sliced off. Each patient requires a blood transfusion to compensate for the blood loss. Many patients are greatly scarred and movement of limbs can be greatly diminished. (ATS) Advanced Tissue Sciences, specialises in skin. They disaggregate the cells from a single penile foreskin, this is obtained from the circumcision of a new born. Then they sort out the cells known as fibroblasts, and grow them into sheets. Fibroblasts are less likely to be rejected by the immune system, because they do not produce proteins; this leads to less scar tissue for the patient. The fibroblasts are unspecialised and can be coaxed into dividing and multiplying to such a degree as to yield 25,000 square metres of artificial skin by persuading them to colonise a mesh like sheet that acts as the skeleton for the new structure.

There are two versions of the skin, the skeleton for burns (which is removed after 6 to 8 weeks), consists of a nylon mesh with a silastic outer membrane. The other (which stays put) is for food ulcers that plague many diabetics. It is a biodegradable copolymer of polyglycolic acid that is widely used for surgical sutures. To make more complicated tissues, like organs fitting the synthetic scaffolds with signalling devices that lure the cells they are supposed to attract and warn the rest to stay away, the scientists at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) are attempting to seduce neurons to grow in ways that will help regenerate damaged nerves. Nerves in adults are reluctant to grow, but regrowth does seem to be stimulated by electric currents. Dr Griffith-Clima is on her way to developing an artificial liver, artificial cartilage, for example, the ear grown on a mouse for people who are born without them, but cartilage can be used for knee replacements. Connective tissue can be replaced as well, like heart valves.

Gene and enzyme replacement leads to genetic therapies. 'Somatic' gene therapy involves injecting genetically engineered cells into the body to correct the function of defective cells. Scientists are developing genetic substances that can be inhaled to correct fibrosis patients. Only diseases caused by mutation in single genes could be treated by somatic cell gene therapy; disease due to whole chromosome defects are technically too difficult to treat.

On the other hand, 'Germline' gene therapy involves the introduction of new genes to replace defective genes in newly formed (single-celled) embryos. If successful the new traits would be passed onto the next generation. Germline therapy is

not very often used because of the often very serious ill side effects, like arthritis or imbalances between protein and fat levels. So far the limits of developments of Gene Therapy is time, money and the imagination.

As you can see, Biotechnology covers many areas from the research and advancements made and many applications produced to benefit the quality of life and health of many people of this world. I hope that I have covered the following areas to

give a sufficient overview of the improvements of health in

our lifestyles today and the benefits biotechnology can give man.

Recombinant DNA technology, genetic engineering, the mass production of monoclonal antibodies, the advancements in tissue cultures, the efforts of the Human Genome Projects and the continual developments of DNA vaccines to counter the viruses and diseases that plague mankind, these are just some of the topics for discussion when we think of the human problems.

Bibliography

Biotechnology, J. Teasdale, Stanley Thornes Publishers Ltd, London.

Biotechnology, Beryl Morris, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.

Genetic Engineering, Nigel Hawkes, Franklin Watts, London.

The New Genetics, Rosemary Hipkins, Longman Paul Ltd, New Zealand.

Genetic Engineering: Science in Action, Beryl Morris, CSIRO, Australia, 1992.

Microbiology and Biotechnology, Pauline Lowrie and Susan Wells, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.

Genetic Engineering, Eve and Albert Stwertka, Franklin Watts, United States of America.

The World Book Encyclopedia, Book 2(B), The World Book Encyclopedia (International Publishers), pg 314.

Human Perspectives, T.J. Newton and A.P. Joyce, McPhersons Printing Group, Australia, pg. 56-57.

Introduction to Human & Social Biology, Don MacKean & Brian Jones, Jarrold & Sons Ltd, London, pg 81-82.

The Economist, Genetic Screening: Integrated Circuit, February 25 to March 3, 1995.

The Economist, Tomorrows Skin Factories: Sowing Cells, Growing Organs, Jan 6 to 12, 1996.

The Economist, Evolution: Genetic Re-engineering, February 10 to 16, 1996.

The Economist, Thought Prints in the Sand, February 24 to March 1, 1996.

The Economist, Editing RNA: The Fundamentals of Editing, March 16 to 22, 1996.

The Economist, DNA Vaccines: Spiralling to a New Vaccine, June 8 to 14, 1996.

The Economist, No More Tears, June 8 to 14, 1996.

Copyright 1996 Australian Biotechnology Association Ltd.