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African Crop Science Journal September 1999 Vol. 7 No. 3 pp. 223- 298 Special Issue: Monograph on Geographic shifts in highland cooking banana (Musa, group AAA-EA) production in Uganda Code Number: CS99017 Editors: C.S. Gold, E.B. Karamura, A. Kiggundu, F. Bagamba and A.M.K. Abera Editorial Secretariat, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, Makerere University, Uganda PART 3: SITE SUMMARIES A. Central Uganda. Highland cooking and beer bananas have been grown in Uganda from antiquity from the north-central shore of Lake Victoria to the west bank of the Nile, in an area encompassed by Iganga, Kamuli, Jinja, Mukono, Luwero and Mpigi districts. This central region is situated between 1000 and 1300 m.a.s.l. Near the lake, the land is largely defined by rolling hills, although it becomes progressively flat as one moves north. The vegetation includes tall grasslands with patches of tropical forest, scrub and, in the north, short grasslands and savannah. The soils are ferralitic with fertile clays. Near the lake, rainfall of 1500-2000 mm is optimal for growing banana, while lower rainfall in the north (500-1500 mm) makes banana production more difficult. The area has been densely populated and is characterised by small farm agriculture and intensive production. Until the 1970s, banana was the dominant staple (often grown in banana/coffee systems) and Mukono and Mpigi districts jointly comprised the most important banana producing area in the country. Market access is considerably better for the southern sites as they are closer to the major commercial centres of Kampala and Jinja. Banana production deterioration was first reported in the 1940s (Tothill, 1940) with accelerated decline beginning in the 1960s and 1970s. To study banana production decline in the central region, 9 sites were selected in Iganga, Kamuli, Mukono and Luwero districts, using a stratified grid map (Jagtap, 1993). Figure 2. Time line demonstrating production leveles of cooking bananas in Busembatya. SITE 1: BUSEMBATYA (IGANGA DISTRICT) Location: 25 km N of Iganga Village size: 850 households Topography: Flat Access: Well maintained murram roads to Iganga Ethnic groups: Basoga with Bagwere, Banyole and Badama minorities Land tenure: Freehold Land pressure: High; most land under continuous cultivation Average Farm size: 0.8 ha Dominant farming systems: Monoculture, maize and finger millet Banana production: Very low, dominated by exotic beer types Banana dynamics. Cooking banana traditional staple food; replacement by drought tolerant crops: cassava, maize and millet. Later disappearance of cassava due to mosaic. Staples (i.e. maize, millet, groundnut) became cash crops following collapse of the cotton industry and unstable coffee markets. Table 1. Farmers ranking of food and cash crops in the 1970s and 1990s (30 May 1995) in Busembatya
Beer bananas = Kisubi (AB) Table 2. Status of AAA-EA banana clones grown in Busembatya in 1990s
Notes: Five AAA-EA brewing clones replaced by Kisubi (AB) which is grown in pure stands, more tolerant of pests, infertile soils, required less management, produced higher quality juice TABLE 3. Banana yields and stand characteristics on selected study farms in Busembatya
Village average yield: 5-7 kg Table 4. Farmer ranking of causes of banana decline in Busembatya
1 = most important Table 5. Weevil and nematode levels on selected farms in Busembatya
Key Notes: Banana weevil first became a serious pest in early 1960s. Moles and black ant (Odontomachus trogolodytes) (= kaasa) also considered serious pests. Moles more important on other crops. Toppling attributed to ants. Nematodes not recognised Table 6. Shifts in agronomic practices and levels of banana management in Busembatya
Notes: Management of banana stands was the responsibility of both men and women. Initial declines in banana management were attributed to a narrowing labour base such that labour intensive methods could no longer be employed. Further declines reflected dissatisfaction with the poorer crop performance Soils Foliar analysis: N and Mg deficient; P, K and Ca adequate Notes: Soil fertility decline believed caused by land pressure and resulting changes in agronomic practices. Traditionally, farmers practised shifting cultivation with 25% of the land laying in fallow for 2 or more years. Now, continuous cropping with short or no fallow periods. Annual crops continued to perform relatively well with only moderate yield reductions SITE 2: NAMUGONGO (KAMULI DISTRICT) Location: 10 km W of Kaliro; 40 km N of Iganga Village size: 600 households; sparsely populated Topography: Flat Access: Distant from markets; connected to Iganga and Luwero by fair condition murram roads. Ethnic groups: Basoga with Iteso minority Land tenure: Freehold Land pressure: Light; extensive bush fallow Farm size: 3.5 ha Dominant farming systems: Mixed annual crops Banana production: Very low, in small plots or kitchen gardens Banana dynamics: Cooking banana was traditional staple, but already minor crop by 1970s. First replaced by millet, sweet potato and cassava. Maize and rice later gained favour. Cassava disappeared due to African Cassava Mosaic Disease. Maize and rice became cash crops following collapse of the cotton industry and unstable coffee markets. Figure 3. Time line demonstrating production levels of cooking bananas in Namugongo Table 1. Farmers ranking of food and cash crops in the 1970s and 1990s (26 May 1995) in Namugongo
Beer bananas = Kisubi (AB) Table 2. Status of AAA-EA banana clones grown in Namugongo in the 1990s
Notes: Moderate amounts of Kisubi (AB) and some Kayinja (ABB) were grown for local beverage production, while Ndiizi was produced for home consumption. These are replacing cooking banana due to greater tolerance of pests, drought and low soil fertility, and their low management demands Table 3. Banana yields and stand characteristics on selected study farms in Namugongo
Village average yield: 4-6 kg Notes: Transect drives revealed most banana stands contained < 50 mats compared to stands of > 0.8 ha in the 1950s and 1960s. Stand life reduced from decades to < 5 years TABLE 4. Farmer ranking of causes of banana decline in Namugongo
1 = most important Table 5. Weevil and nematode levels on selected farms in Namugongo
Key Notes: Banana weevil first became a problem in the 1970s. Moles and black ant (Odontomachus trogolodytes) (= kaasa) also considered serious pests. Nematodes not recognised Table 6. Shifts in agronomic practices and levels of banana management in Namugongo
Notes: Men and women were previously jointly responsible for managing cooking banana. Now, women are responsible for cooking banana, while men manage cash crops, including beer banana, and work off-farm. Occasional hired labour allocated to field preparation and weeding of annual cash and staple crops which are more productive, quicker maturing and more profitable. Priority was given to: 1) maize; 2) soybean; 3) groundnut; 4) sweet potato. Regional by-laws originally mandated soil conservation (e.g. trenches), de-suckering, mulching, sanitation Soils Foliar analyses: Mg low; adequate levels of N, P, K and Ca Notes: Until 1980s, virgin land was present and fallow periods of 3-5 years was common. Soil management (i.e., manure, mulches) has been largely discontinued, leading to soil nutrient decline. Banana now restricted to best soils. Farmers also planted beans, sweet potato and maize on relatively fertile soils, and finger millet, cassava, sorghum and soybeans on poorer soils SITE 3: BULYANGADA (IGANGA DISTRICT) Location: 30 km S of Iganga along the shore of Lake Victoria Village size: N/A Topography: Flat Access: Poorly maintained murram roads, gutted during the rainy season, connected to tarmac road between Iganga and Tororo. Ethnic groups: Basoga with Banyankole, Japadola, Bagwere and Bagisu minorities Land tenure: Customary and freehold Land pressure: High; intensive cultivation on most land. Farm size: 1 ha Dominant farming systems: Mixed annual crops, coffee, banana Banana production: Low to moderate; dominated by exotic beer and dessert clones. Banana dynamics: Banana is traditional staple. Yield decline began in mid 1970s. Yields stable since mid-1980s. Largely replaced by cassava and maize. Murram road to Iganga constructed in 1970s allowed banana to be important cash crop. However, road deteriorated reducing trader visits. Kisubi (AB) and Kayinja (ABB), introduced in 1980s, replaced cooking banana and became important cash crops. Cotton market collapsed but coffee remained leading cash crop despite low, fluctuating prices. Figure 4: Time line demonstrating production levels of cooking banana in Bulyangada Table 1. Farmers ranking of food and cash crops in the 1970s and 1990s (31 May 1995) in Bulyangada
Beer bananas = Kisubi (AB), Kayinja (ABB) Table 2. Status of AAA-EA banana clones grown in Bulyangada in 1990s
Notes: Kayinja (ABB) and Kisubi (AB) important. Kidozi (AB) and Namadi (AB) important dessert bananas, while Niwete (AB), once important, had disappeared TABLE 3. Banana stand characteristics on selected study farms in Bulyangada
Village average yield: 4-7 kg Table 4. Farmer ranking of causes of banana decline in Bulyangada
1 = most important Table 5. Weevil and nematode levels on selected farms in Bulyangada
Key XI: Percent damage to central cylinder Notes: Important pests are banana weevil, black ant (Ondontomachus troglodytes) and termites. All present in 1960s but at low, manageable levels. Weevil problems worse on degraded soils and during droughts. Increasing importance of Kayinja (ABB) and Kisubi (AB), in part, a response to weevil problems. Some farmers do not mulch due to rapid removal by termites Table 6. Shifts in agronomic practices and levels of banana management in Bulyangada
Notes: Management levels were high during 1940s and 1950s when banana was high yielding, labour plentiful and migrant labourers often permanently employed. Since 1970s, banana producers have faced worsening land pressure, increasing production constraints (i.e., pest pressure, soil nutrient imbalances), less available and more costly labour. Land pressure led to more inter-cropping with beans, coffee, cassava, maize, finger millet. As yields declined, farmers began to shift their attention (land, labour, capital) to other crops including cassava, maize, beer bananas Soils Foliar analyses: Mg deficiencies limited banana growth; N and P low; K and Ca adequate Notes: With existing land pressure, fallowing uncommon. Costs of mulching and manuring prohibitive. Soil exhaustion, attributed to continuous cropping without restoring soil nutrients, was reflected in diminished yields for all crops. Banana and groundnut planted on best soils; maize and cassava on less fertile soils SITE 4: NAMINAGE (KAMULI DISTRICT) Location: 10 km S of Kamuli Village size: 741 households Topography: Flat Access: Well maintained murram road to Kamuli, from which tarmac road extends to Jinja and Kampala. Ethnic groups: Basoga Land tenure: Predominantly freehold; some farmers rented land Land pressure: High; intensive cultivation on most land. Average farm size: 1.6 ha; down from 8 ha in 1970s Dominant farming systems: Mixed annual crops, coffee, banana Banana production: Sparse and limited to kitchen gardens Other activities: Some people involved in livestock/poultry production, brick making, and off-farm employment. Banana dynamics: Cooking banana traditional staple. Yield decline began in 1960s causing shift to maize and beans. Modest banana sales disappeared by 1980s. Kisubi (AB), introduced in the 1980s, of moderate importance. Cassava wiped out by Cassava Mosaic Disease in early 1990s. Cotton, maize, coffee and groundnut were leading cash crops, with maize and beans gaining importance with collapse of cotton. Figure 5. Time line demonstrating production levels of cooking banana in Naminga. TABLE 1. Farmers ranking of food and cash crops in the 1970s and 1990s (24 May 1995) in Naminage
Beer bananas = Kisubi TABLE 2. Status of AAA-EA banana clones grown in Naminage in 1990s
* Beer clone Notes: Kisubi (AB) widely grown Table 3. Banana stand characteristics on selected study farms in Naminage
Village average yield: 5-8 kg Notes: Banana production scarce; mostly kitchen gardens with few stands > 0.2 ha, compared to 1960s when stands > 2 ha common. Although some older stands present, average stand longevity has declined from > 20 years to 3-6 years Table 4. Farmer ranking of causes of banana decline in Naminage
1 = most important Table 5. Weevil and nematode levels on selected farms in Naminage
Key XI: Percent damage to central cylinder Notes: Farmers considered banana weevil as the leading cause of banana decline. Black ant (Ondontomachus troglodytes) and moles also important Table 6. Shifts in agronomic practices and levels of banana management in Naminage
Notes: Until 1970s, banana was well managed with a high standard of agronomic practices (de-suckering, mulching, sanitation, weevil trapping, weeding) enforced by regional laws. Farmers often exchanged labour within the community of employed migrant labour. Reduced management reflected loss of interest in banana in face of declining productivity, rather than being leading cause of decline. Participation in a cash sconomy had become more important than in the past. As a result, profitability became an important concern. As banana yields declined, priority was shifted to annual crops which provided quicker and more secure returns. Soils: Foliar analysis: Some farms were deficient in N and Mg, others lacked K anad Mg. Notes: Soil exhaustion brought on by intensive cultivation, while only 25% could fallow (1-3 years). Banana grown on the best soils although yields were poor. Maize, beans, groundnut, soybean and sweet potatoe performed well SITE 5: KABANDA (MUKONO DISTRICT) Location: 15 km SE of Lugazi and 20 km E of Lake Victoria; bordered by Mabira Forest Village size: 120 households in a 3 km2 area Topography: Gently sloping terrain; shrubby grasslands Access: Well maintained murram road to Lugazi which connects to Kampala-Jinja tarmac road Ethnic groups: Baganda predominant, with Basoga, Banyarwanda, Badama, Banyankole, Banyoro, Banubi and Batoro present. The Baganda and Basoga were traditional banana growers while the others preferred cassava, sweet potatoes or maize. Land tenure: Freehold Land pressure: High; agricultural intensity moderate. Average farm size: < 0.8 ha Dominant farming systems: Mixed annual crops, coffee, banana Banana production: Light to moderate Other activities: Majority of people depended more on off-farm employment than agriculture. Many of the men owned businesses in Lugazi or Mukono, as artisans or traders, worked on the sugarcane estate in Lugazi, or fished in Lake Victoria. Banana dynamics: Banana was traditional staple. Declines were already in evidence in 1970s, which encouraged encroachment in the Mabira Forest where virgin soils supported excellent production. Squatters were evicted from forest in mid 1980s. By 1990s, banana largely replaced by cassava, beans and sweet potatoes. Cooking banana was of minor importance as a cash crop (sold in Lugazi). Kayinja (ABB), introduced in the 1980s, became important cash crop; bunches sold to local beer brewers and distillers of local gin (waragi). Figure 6: Time line demonstrating production levels of cooking banana in Kubanda Table 1. Farmers ranking of food and cash crops in the 1970s and 1990s (10 May 1995) in Kabanda
Beer bananas = Kayinja (ABB) Table 2. Status of AAA-EA banana clones grown in Kabanda in 1990s
Notes: Kayinja (ABB) common; Bogoya (= Gros Michel AAA) in small amounts Table 3. Banana stand characteristics on selected study farms in Kabanda
Village average yield: 8-10 kg Notes: Farmers were unclear on hectares in 1970s. The 6 farms visited had all been recently bought or inherited so initial hectares could not be established Table 4. Farmer ranking of causes of banana decline in Kabanda
1 = most important Table 5. Weevil and nematode levels on selected farms in Kabanda
Key XI: Percent damage to central cylinder Notes: Banana weevil and black ant (Ondontomachus troglodytes) important. Increasing weevil pressure attributed to reduced management Table 6. Shifts in agronomic practices and levels of banana management in Kabanda
Notes: Most farmers agreed that reduced management was the leading cause of banana production decline. Reduced management attention resulted from diminishing labour base, loss of interest, lost knowledge from preceding generations, land pressure, and competing off-farm activities. Labour was most limiting resource (reduced labour base and inability to compete with nearby sugar industry), followed by capital and land. In the past, women tended food crops while men managed cash crops. Men became more involved in off-farm employment, leaving women to work both. As banana declined, younger generations lost interest and refused to assume labour intensive methods Soils Foliar analysis: N was important limiting factor, while Mg sometimes low. Other nutrients appeared adequate Notes: Both soil erosion and exhaustion reported. Land pressure resulted in reduction/elimination of fallowing, greater frequency of inter-cropping with annual crops or coffee. Cooking banana planted on most fertile soils; brewing bananas, sweet potatoes and cassava on more infertile soils SITE 6: BUSAGAZI (MUKONO DISTRICT) Location: 10 km E from Kayunga and 60 km NNE from Mukono Village size: 1500 households Topography: Rolling hills Access: Tarmac road to Mukono Ethnic groups: Baganda predominant, with Basoga, Bagwere and Luo also present. Baganda were traditional banana cultivators, while other groups primarily grew annual crops (e.g. maize, cassava, sweet potatoes). Land tenure: Mailo, but farmers can decide what they wish to do with land Land pressure: High, with intensive cultivation Average farm size: 0.8-1.2 ha Dominant farming systems: Mixed annual crops, coffee, banana Banana production: Moderate Banana dynamics: Cooking banana traditional staple. Following decline, beginning in 1970s, replaced by cassava and beans. Until 1960s, cooking banana grown entirely for home consumption. In 1960s and 1970s, banana (moved by lorries to Kampala) was equal in importance to coffee. With decline of banana, in many instances, coffee has been planted in place of banana or banana has become the second crop in mixtures with coffee or pineapple. Kayinja (ABB) also rose in importance. Figure 7: Time line demonstration of production levels of cooking bananas in Busagazi Table 1. Farmers ranking of food and cash crops in the 1970s and 1990s (5 June 1995) in Busagazi
Beer bananas - Kayinja (ABB) Table 2. Status of AAA-EA banana clones grown in Busagazi in 1990s
Notes: Kayinja (AAB) widespread and important; believed to be resistant to weevils and ants Table 3. Banana stand characteristics on selected study farms in Busagazi
Village average yield: 7-10 kg Notes: Many stands > 0.4 ha, including a number or relatively young plantations. Inter-cropping banana with coffee and pineapple common Table 4. Farmer ranking of causes of banana decline in Busagazi
1 = most important Table 5. Weevil and nematode levels on selected farms in Busagazi
Key XI: Percent damage to central cylinder Notes: Farmers reported banana weevil as leading cause of decline. First observed snapping in 1970s. Some farmers inspected planting material, trapped and/or applied pesticides. Black ant (Ondontomachus troglodytes) almost as important as weevil. Black sigatoka, known through local extension staff, reported as a recent and important disease problem. Farmers recognised damage symptoms of Fusarium wilt on Kayinja (ABB) (extent in village not assessed) Table 6. Shifts in agronomic practices and levels of banana management in Busagazi
Notes: Banana was traditional staple food and important cash crop in 1970s. Management levels were high with enforcement of local by-laws (de-suckering, mulching, soil conservation, sanitation). As yields declined, limited resources shifted to more productive crops. Labour availability fell sharply between 1970s and 1980s, but was regarded as secondary cause of banana decline Soils Foliar analyses: Mg deficient; other nutrients adequate Notes: High land pressure resulted in continuous cultivation, extensive inter-cropping and reduced fallow periods resulted in exhausted soils. Mulches and soil amendments uncommon. Farmers planted banana on their best soils or on remaining virgin lands SITE 7: MPOMA (MUKONO DISTRICT) Location: 3 adjacent villages 15 km N of Mukono Village size: 1356 households in a 16 km2 area Topography: Flat with gently sloping hills Access: Poorly maintained murram road from parish connected to tarmac road to Mukono Ethnic groups: Predominantly Baganda with Badama, Banyarwanda and Iteso Land tenure: Mailo and Customary. Prior to civil unrest of 1970s/1980s, banana could be grown on rented land. Following resettlement, the dominant land owner in one village evicted tenants and squatters who had been growing banana and other crops. In the 1990s, many farmers lived on borrowed or rented land on which they were no longer allowed to grow perennial crops such as banana. Land pressure: Uneven: High for small holders with intensive cultivation; low for large holders with extensive tracts of uncultivated land. Farm size: 0.8-2.0 ha Dominant farming systems: Mixed annual crops, coffee, banana Banana production: Light to moderate Other activities: A minority of men engaged in off-farm employment, including charcoal burning, brick making, owning shops in Kampala or Mukono, or holding civil service jobs. Banana dynamics: Banana was the traditional staple, with maize second in importance. Cassava and sweet potato replaced banana and maize as the leading staples. In 1970s, coffee and cotton were the only cash crops but disappeared due to low fluctuating coffee prices and collapse of the cotton industry. Cooking banana enjoyed a brief market in the late 1970s and 1980s but could not be sustained due to poor yields. Kayinja (ABB), introduced in 1980s, became the leading cash crop with bunches sold to local distillers. Figure 8: Time line demonstrating production levels of cooking banana in Mpoma. Table 1. Farmers ranking of food and cash crops in the 1970s and 1990s (9 May 1995) in Mpoma
Beer bananas = Kayinja (ABB) Table 2. Status of AAA-EA banana clones grown in 1990s in Mpoma
Notes: Highland beer banana never grown. Kayinja (ABB) widespread; gained importance in 1980s due to tolerance of pests and low management. Ndiizi (AB) of minor importance Table 3. Banana stand characteristics on selected study farms in Mpoma
Village average yield: 4-7 kg Notes: Banana stand sizes in 1970 not clear. Currently, most stands < 0.4 ha. Average stand life was reported to have declined from decades to 3-6 yr, resulting in gradual abandonment of the crop Table 4. Farmer ranking of causes of banana decline in Mpoma
1 = most important Notes: Many farmers preferred to grow cassava and sweet potatoes for local markets, while increasing numbers of men held off-farm employment Table 5. Weevil and nematode levels on selected farms in Mpoma
Key XI: Percent damage to central cylinder Notes: Banana weevil first observed in 1935 and became a significant problem in the 1970s. Inter-cropping and weeding (i.e., digging in banana stands) reported to exacerbate weevil problems by exposing the corms to attack and increasing toppling. Farmers described Fusarium wilt symptoms on Kayinja (ABB) and Ndiizi (AB) Table 6. Shifts in agronomic practices and levels of banana management in Mpoma
Notes: In 1970s, men and women were jointly responsible for banana management. Migrant labour used for bush clearing, ploughing and work in cotton and coffee, but never used in food crops. By 1990s, migrant labour was scarce and many men held off-farm employment, while women were unwilling to do labour-intensive management. However, change in management standards was more a result rather than a cause of banana decline. Low yields and short plantation life discouraged investment in banana production Soils Foliar analyses: N and Mg deficient; other nutrients adequate Notes: Land pressure precluded fallowing and crop rotation, leading to over cultivation and soil exhaustion. Most crops showed decline on better soils, while cassava and sweet potato performed best on exhausted soils and had become leading staple and cash crops. Farmers recognised need for inputs to improve soil nutrient status, but this was beyond the means of most. If soils could be restored, farmers would rate banana as a high priority crop SITE 8: NAKAWOMERO (LUWERO DISTRICT) Location: 40 km E of Luwero, 80 km N of Kampala, adjacent to Lake Kiyoga Village size: 127 households Topography: Flat; shrubby grasslands and forest patches Access: Remote with poorly maintained murram road, gutted with gulleys and barely passable in the rainy season. Ethnic groups: The Baganda were predominant, with Bagwere, Bakiga, Banyakole (Bahima), Barundi, Basoga, Lugbar and Luo present. Land tenure: Traditionally mailo but many were buying land following resettlement Land pressure: Light In the 1960s, this area was heavily populated and land pressure was a problem. During the 1970s and 1980s, the region suffered from political unrest and most residents abandoned their farms. Eventually some, but not all, of the village's residents returned to their homes. As a result, the village has remained sparsely populated with well spaced homesteads. Much land was in bush fallow or uncultivated. Farm size: 2 ha Dominant farming systems: Mixed annual crops, coffee, banana Banana production: Light, except one area with virgin soils. Other activities: Charcoal production from local forests Banana dynamics: Cooking banana was the traditional staple. Yield decline under way by 1970s, continued through 1980s and led to marginal status of the crop in 1990s. Cassava was the first replacement crop, became an important cash crop, but was abandoned due to Cassava Mosaic Disease. Because of its remoteness, traders seldom visited this site and agriculture has been largely subsistence. Small amounts of cooking banana sold locally. Kayinja (ABB), introduced in the 1970s, became the second most important source of agricultural income. Figure 9: time line demonstratin levels of cooking banana in Nakawomero. Table 1. Farmers ranking of food and cash crops in the 1970s and 1990s (17 May 1995) in Nakawomero
Beer bananas = Kayinja (ABB) Table 2. Status of AAA-EA banana clones grown in Nakawomero in1990s
* = beer clone Notes: Kayinja (ABB) widespread and marketed. Ndiizi (AB) in low amounts. Bogoya (= Gros Michel) (AAA) and Gonja (= plantain) (AAB) once grown but abandoned Table 3. Banana stand characteristics on selected study farms in Nakawomero
Village average yield: 5-8 kg Notes: One area with recently opened virgin soils had banana stands > 0.4 ha. Banana production in remainder of village ranged from kitchen garden to 0.2 ha. Many stands inter-cropped with coffee, beans or maize Table 4. Farmer ranking of causes of banana decline in Nakawomero
1 = most important Table 5. Weevil and nematode levels on selected farms in Nakawomero
Key XI: Percent damage to central cylinder HM: Numbers of Helicotylenchus multicinctus Notes: The banana weevil attained pest status in 1980s and was considered leading production constraint. Drought was reported to exacerbate weevil damage. Black ant (Odontomachus trogolodytes) also considered serious. Some farmers responded to pest problems by opening new pieces of land Table 6. Shifts in agronomic practices and levels of banana management in Nakawomeka
Notes: Although banana was the preferred staple food, it did not receive high management priority. Land pressure was high through the 1970s such that soils became exhausted and banana productivity went into decline. Thus, cassava replaced banana as the leading food crop until it, in turn, was replaced by sweet potato and maize. It appeared that farmers had not attempted to restore banana production in light of reduced land pressure and possible soil rejuvenation in the 1990s While in most sites banana was planted on the most fertile soils, in Nakowomeka annual food crops (especially sweet potato) were placed on newly opened fallow land. Labour availability was more restrictive after the 1980s war, and farmers gave higher priority to making charcoal and managing coffee and maize crops than banana. Although land was no longer limiting, many farmers established banana/coffee systems in which coffee was favoured because of its greater commercial value. Banana, in part, was seen as a shade crop for coffee and received limited management attention, especially after the coffee became well established Reduced management attention to banana was reflected in sporadic de-suckering of banana mats resulting in high plant density. Mulching with banana trash was common but there was little attempt to control pests Soils Foliar analyses: Mg, N, and K deficient; other nutrients adequate Notes: Farmers reported soil exhaustion as an important cause of banana decline. However, causes of soil exhaustion were unclear. Although the land was intensively cropped prior to civil disturbances, land pressure was now low and much of the land was out of cultivation. Crop rotation and fallowing of at least 2 to 3 year was possible for most farmers. As banana stands deteriorated, they were abandoned and replaced by new plantations on fallowed or forested land SITE 9: NAKASAJJA (MUKONO DISTRICT) Location: 2 adjacent villages, 15 km E of Gayaza and 40 km NE of Kampala Village size: 1039 households Topography: Gently sloping hills, patches of forest Access: Very good: A well maintained murram road passes from Nakasajja to Gayaza which, in turn, is connected to Kampala by tarmac. Ethnic groups: Baganda predominant, with Banyarwanda, Barundi, Lugbara and Bagisu present Land tenure: Mostly freehold with some farms remaining under mailo; only annual crops could be grown on rented land Land pressure: High; intensive cultivation Farm size: 0.8 - 1.2 ha Dominant farming systems: Mixed annual crops Banana production: Light to moderate Other activities: Trading: buying staples locally and selling in trading centres of Gayaza and Kalerwe; bringing manufactured goods from Kampala to Gayaza and Nakasajja. Banana dynamics: Cooking banana was traditional staple. Yield decline first noticed in late 1960s and accelerated in 1980s. Although no longer leading food in 1990s, remained relatively important. Initially, coffee and cotton were predominant cash crops, and maize became important by 1970s. Cotton and coffee disappeared because of the industry's collapse and unstable prices, respectively. Cooking banana sold to Kampala in 1970s but thereafter low yield negated any market potential. Local conversion of cassava into flour provided better means of storage and extended its shelf life, providing additional incentive for its production. Kayinja (ABB), introduced in the 1980s, is now an important cash crop. Traders now deliver cooking banana to the site. Figure 10: Time line demonstrating production levels of cooking banana in Nagasajja. Table 1. Farmers ranking of food and cash crops in the 1970s and 1990s (7 June 1995) in Nakasajja
Beer bananas = Kayinja (ABB) Table 2. Status of AAA-EA banana clones grown in Nakasajja in1990s
Notes: Highland brewing clones never grown. Ndiizi (AB) grown for local consumption and minor cash crop, while Kayinja (ABB) widespread and important Table 3. Banana stand characteristics on selected study farms in Nakasajja
Village average yield: 5-7 kg Table 4. Farmer ranking of causes of banana decline in Nakasajja
1 = most important Table 5. Weevil and nematode levels on selected farms in Nakasajja
Key: XI: Percent damage to central cylinder Notes: Banana weevil leading constraint; first obtained pest status in 1950s. Black ant (Odontomachus troglodytes) also serious. Termites remove mulch and are important pest Table 6. Shifts in agronomic practices and levels of banana management in Naksasajja
Note: Land pressure resulted in increased inter-cropping and reduced crop rotation and fallowing. Women had primary responsibility for managing cooking banana, while men worked cash crops or traded. In past, most family labour was allocated to banana, while hired labour was used in coffee and cotton. With scarcity of hired labour, family labour shifted to cash or more productive food crops. Farmers became discouraged by poor banana yields and believed the crop could not be revived even with improved management Soils Foliar analyses: N and Mg limiting; other nutrients adequate Note: Farmers did not regard degraded soils as a cause of banana production decline. Better soils were considered fertile and potentially productive, and farmers believed that fertility could be restored to degraded soils with better management. Such management was constrained by land pressure and lack of resources for inputs B. SOUTHWESTERN UGANDA The southwestern region of Uganda includes important banana growing regions in Masaka, Rakai, Mbarara, Bushenyi, Ntungamo and Kabale districts. Currently, Mbarara and Bushenyi are the most important of these with highest yields and the dominant suppliers for Uganda's urban markets. The region is characterised by extensive short grasslands and low rainfall (500-1500 mm). This region has less densely populated than the central region and supported a mixture of pastoralists and farmers. Traditionally, finger millet was the leading staple, while coffee and cotton were important cash crops. To study banana crop expansion in southwestern Uganda, 6 villages were randomly selected in Mbarara and Bushenyi districts. SITE 10: BUHWEJU (BUSHENYI DISTRICT) Location: 70 km NW from Mbarara Village size: 720 households Topography: High hills, covered by grassland and deep forested valleys Access: Poor; poorly maintained murram road (30 km to the Mbarara-Bushenyi tarmac road), and hilly terrain Ethnic groups: Banyankole, with small minority of Bakiga. Land tenure: Mailo Land pressure: Light; sparsely populated Farm size: Mostly 0.6-0.8 ha although some farms were up to 3.2 ha. Dominant farming systems: Banana Banana production: Moderate Banana dynamics: Traditionally, cooking banana was a minor crop and millet was the primary staple. Since 1970s, cooking banana has gained favour because of reduced risk (millet often failed in dry years), high yields, year-round harvest, and ease of production and preparation. However, with low population levels and little land pressure, intensity of production had not approached levels of other western sites. Marketing of crops has been sporadic due to site remoteness. Peas became leading cash crop, representing a speciality market for traders. Beer banana had become important for production of gin (waragi) for sale to Uganda Distilleries in Luzira but this market was declining. Cooking banana is sold to traders from Kampala although farm-gate prices are very low at this site. Figure 11 Time line demonstrating production levels of cooking banana in Buhweju Table 1. Farmers ranking of food and cash crops in the 1970s and 1990s (12 July 1995) in Buhweju
Beer bananas = Mbidde Table 2. Status of AAA-EA banana clones grown in Buhweju in 1990s
* = beer clones Notes: The 3 brewing clones were being phased out due to reduced purchases of processed waragi by traders Table 3. Farmer rankings of key factors contributing to banana expansion in Buhweju
1 = most important Management: Management standards are moderately high. Banana is produced in monoculture to maximize yields. On most farms, spacing maintained at 2-3 plants/mat through regular de-suckering. Half of the farmers removed corms for weevil control. Routine management of banana by family labour. Hired (local) labour uncommon and primarily for land preparation. Men primarily responsible for banana stands Soils: Farmers considered their soils fertile, and this was reflected in high and increasing banana yields. Banana was rarely planted on lower fertility soils and only with addition of manure. The major problems were leaching of nutrients and soil erosion. Most farmers planted grass bands on slopes for erosion control. However, only 30% of the farmers mulched (because of limited materials) or applied manure Pests: Banana weevil, considered a minor pest in the 1960s, had recently increased in importance. Wilting of matooke, first observed in 1993, occurred near homesteads or animal kraals. Weeds (especially coach grass) and moles considered important production constraints Future of banana production Although cooking banana production expanded in the 1980s in response to market demand, farmers viewed brewing bananas (with longer shelf life) as a more favourable option because of the remoteness of the site. However, management attention continued to be directed towards cooking banana because of its attributes as a food crop (food security, convenience of preparation, taste). The consensus was that banana production would continue to increase SITE 11: KATOOMA (BUSHENYI DISTRICT) Location: 45 kms NW of Mbarara Village size: 680 households in a 6 km2 area Topography: Plateau Access: Good; well maintained murram road to the Mbarara-Kabale tarmac road. Ethnic groups: Banyankole-Bairu with a small minority of Bakiga. Unlike the pastoralist groups which had settled in Mbarara and Bushenyi, the Banyankole-Bairu were traditionally cultivators. Land tenure: Customary Land pressure: Heavy Farm size: 0.8 ha Dominant farming systems: Banana Banana production: Heavy Banana dynamics: One of the first sites in southwest Uganda to grow and market cooking banana. Traditional food crops were finger millet and sweet potato. Cooking banana introduced in 1940s and 1950s by returning migrant labour from central Uganda. Began replacing finger millet in 1990s because of ease of production and food security (i.e., year round harvest and reduced risk). Banana also important cash crop by 1970s (second behind coffee). Coffee declined in 1980s due to unfavourable prices, and banana became dominant cash crop with high yields and well maintained roads attracting traders from Kampala and Mbarara. Figure 12 Time Line demonstrating production levels of cooking bananas in Katooma Table 1. Farmers ranking of food and cash crops in the 1970s and 1990s (5 July 1995) in Katooma
Beer bananas = Mbidde Table 2. Status of AAA-EA banana clones grown in Katooma in 1990s
* = beer clone Notes: Entaragaza, Enkara, Mbwazirume and Enyeru most preferred Table 3. Farmer rankings of key factors contributing to banana expansion in Katooma
1 = most important Management: Banana was given high management priority with both men and women working in banana stands. Men also tended livestock, while women cultivated annual crops. Banana management standards were moderate to high. Frequent de-suckering maintainted 3 plants per mat, and fields were regularly weeded. Beans were commonly planted in banana stands every three years to loosen the soil, although farmers noted that intercropping reduced banana yields. Few farmers were able to apply manure or external mulches Pests: Banana weevil and unidentified corm rots considered important banana production constraints. Wilting of cooking banana observed. Few farmers practiced sanitation or applied pesticides for weevil control Soils: Recent yield declines, in part, attributed to reduced soil fertility. Farmers felt soil fertility not major constraint if mulch and manure applied. Stands partially mulched, and few farmers planted grass bands or applied manure 5. Future of banana production In spite of increasing importance, future outlook for banana was unclear. This was the only southwestern study site where farmers (70%) noted decreasing bunch size and expressed concern over the crop's future. Farmers believed that banana production will soon decline, due mainly to increased land pressure, weevil pressure, toppling and disease problems SITE 12: KASHARI (MBARARA DISTRICT) Location: 15 km W of Mbarara Village size: 200 households in a 6 km2 area Topography: Gently rolling hills and natural grasslands Access: Excellent; along Mbarara-Bushenyi tarmac road Ethnic groups: Banyankole-Bahima predominated with a few Banyankole-Bairu, Bakiga and Banyarwanda also present. Land tenure: Customary Land pressure: Moderate; much of land in pasture Farm size: 3.2 ha Dominant farming systems: Banana and pasture The Banyankole-Bahima were traditional pastoralists. Livestock has remained a major activity in the region and much of the land on the periphery of the village was given over to pasture. In general, paddocks are located in the valleys while crops are concentrated on the hill tops. Banana production: Moderate Banana dynamics: Cooking banana introduced by returning migrant labour in 1960s and quickly replaced finger millet (the traditional staple) because of its year-round harvest and relative ease of production and preparation. Initially grew mixed cooking and beer (mbidde) bananas as shade for coffee. Cash income was provided from both livestock and sale of crops. Coffee, the first important cash crop, was surpassed in importance by beer banana and sorghum (sold to local beer and gin producers) by the 1970s. During the 1980s, farmers replaced coffee (receiving low prices) with banana monoculture. With increasing urban market demand (Kampala and secondarily Mbarara), cooking banana brought higher prices than beer banana. Farmers saw livestock as providing quick capital when necessary, while banana sustained regular family needs throughout the year. Figure 13: Time line demonstration of prodiction of cooking bananas in Kashari Table 1. Farmers ranking of food and cash crops in the 1970s and 1990s (4 July 1995) in Kashari
Beer bananas = Mbidde Table 2. Status of AAA-EA banana clones grown in Kashari in 1990s
* Beer bananas (clones undifferentiated by farmers) Table 3. Farmer rankings of key factors contributing to banana expansion
1 = most important Notes: Initial expansion of banana hectarage was to replace finger millet as staple crop. Further expansion in response to urban market demand. As banana gained importance as a cash crop farmers intensified management, resulting in higher yields. Farmers perceived improved management as playing the most important role in increased banana production. Management: Both men and women are involved in managing banana stands. Men also tended livestock while women produced annual food crops. Management levels were high and considered much better then in the past. Income earned from banana allowed most farmers to work on-farm year-round, rather than serve as seasonal migrant labour. Most farmers relied more on family than on hired labour and many did not allow casual workers in their banana stands. Banana commonly intercropped in plant cycle, then maintained as monoculture. Most farms implemented frequent weeding, good sanitation, regular de-suckering (to maintain plant density at 3-4/mat) and de-leafing. De-leafing was to prevent wind breakage and provide mulch to conserve moisture and control weeds. Half of the farmers intercropped every 3 years with beans to loosen the soil and improve soil fertility. Pests: Banana weevil perceived as key constraint. Nearly all farmers uprooted corms, split pseudostems and trapped to control weevils. Toppling and wilting of Matooke were also problems. Soils: Banana plantations were established on the farmers' most fertile soils or on former animal kraals. Well managed stands were reported to last more than 50 years, while plantations could still last 8-20 years with minimal management. More than half of the farmers applied manure, while 30% constructed trenches to prevent water runoff and soil erosion. Future of banana production Banana production was still rising through increased land area and improved yields. Greatest concern was about variability in and saturation of markets for banana. SITE 13: BIHARWE (MBARARA DISTRICT) Location: 15 km ENE of Mbarara town Village size: 700 households in an 8 km2 area Topography: Gently sloping hills and natural grasslands Access: Excellent; along Masaka-Mbarara tarmac road Ethnic groups: Banyakole-Bahima (pastoralists) and Banyakole-Bairu (cultivators) majority, with Bakooki, Banyarwanda and a few Baganda Land tenure: Freehold or customary Land pressure: Moderate Farm size: 2.2 ha Dominant farming systems: Banana and pasture Banana production: Moderate Banana dynamics: Mixed crops and livestock area, with much land given over to pasture. Cooking and brewing bananas (mbidde) long present in kitchen gardens, but gained importance during 1940s and 1950s, as migrant labour returned from banana growing areas of central Uganda. Cooking banana rapidly replaced finger millet (traditional staple) because of year-round harvest and greater stability of yield. Farmers still prefer eating millet. Livestock and coffee were major sources of income until 1970s. Then, road deterioration, sporadic trader visits and an unreliable coffee market led to replacement by beer banana (sold to local producers of gin), groundnuts and onions. During the 1980s, high yields, increasing urban market demand, and improvement of the Kampala-Mbarara road brought traders to the region. Cooking banana, which earlier had no market, brought in 5 to 10 times as much money per bunch as for beer banana, resulting in shifts from beer to cooking types. Figure 14: Time line demonstrating productivity levels of cooking bananas in Biharwe Table 1. Farmers ranking of food and cash crops in the 1970s and 1990s (3 July 1995) in Biharwe
Beer bananas = Mbidde Table 2. Status of AAA-EA banana clones grown in Biharwe in 1990s
* Beer bananas (clones undifferentiated by farmers) Notes: Ndizi (AB) Gros Michel being phased out due to Fusarium wilt Table 3. Farmer rankings of key factors contributing to banana expansion in Biharwe
1 = most important Notes: Increased banana production was attributed first to greater food security and then to market demand. Banana land area was also increased to support a growing population and as replacement of marginal pasture land. Yield increases were realised with intensified management Management: Management levels increased with commercialization of banana. In spite of increasing land pressure, stand longevity was perceived as "permanent" under "good management", with high and relatively sustainable yields. Both men and women were involved in banana management. Migrant labour was restricted to land preparation and care of annual crops. Most banana was grown in monoculture, although beans were intercropped with banana to loosen the soil when it had formed a hard pan and, thus, to allow water to percolate. Nearly all farmers maintained 3 plants per mat through regular de-suckering they also deleafed, mulched with grass and leaves, kept fields weed-free and practiced sanitation Pests: Though long present, banana weevil problems have worsened in last 5-10 years. Toppling and an unknown corm rot are also constraints. Wilting of matooke observed near homestead and in animal kraals. On some farms, Fusarium wilt present on Ndizi and Gros Michel Soils: Banana stands commonly located in valley bottoms on most fertile soils. Although farmers reported sustainable systems under good management, yield decline reported in some older plantations (i.e., > 20 years) was attributed to loss of soil fertility. Farmers were reluctant to fallow declining plantations for fear of loss of income Future of banana production Most farmers agreed that continued increase in crop land area was unlikely due to land pressure, but that yield per unit area would continue to increase with current and improved management techniques SITE 14: KAGARAMA (MBARARA DISTRICT) Location: 30 km S of Mbarara, (far end of Kagarama Valley) Village size: 450 households in a 7 km2 area Topography: Kagarama Valley; wide plateau with steep hills; natural grassland. Access: Fair. A murram road connects the village to Kaberebere, a major banana collection centre 6 kilometres from Mbarara town. However, the distance and high terrain make the site relatively unattractive to traders who more easily obtain banana from the many growers between Mbarara and Kagarama. Ethnic groups: Mostly Banyankole-Bairu with some Bakiga. Land tenure: Freehold or customary Land pressure: Moderate Farm size: 1.6 ha Dominant farming systems: Banana and annual crops Banana production: Heavy Banana dynamics: Banana introduced in late 1940s by Baganda administrators (sent by central government) who realised that it was more reliable than finger millet (the traditional staple which often failed). Gradually replaced finger millet because of stable yields and ease of preparation. Coffee was traditional cash crop but, by 1980s, unreliable market and falling prices made its production risky. Fortuitously, decline in coffee markets coincided with increasing market demand for banana and repair of road which made the site accessible to traders. Most farmers replaced coffee plantations with banana and onion crops. Large bunch sizes attracted traders from Kampala although farm-gate prices were low due to remoteness of site. Figure 15: Time line demonstrating production levels of cooking bananas in Kararama Table 1. Farmers ranking of food and cash crops in the 1970s and 1990s (13 July 1995) in Kagarama
Beer bananas = Mbidde Table 2. Status of AAA-EA banana clones grown in Kagarama in 1990s in Kagarama
Table 3. Farmer rankings of key factors contributing to banana expansion in Kagarama
1 = most important Management: Banana management standards high. Men primarily responsible for banana management, while women weeded banana fields and worked annual crops. Hired labour basically employed in onions production (considered more labour demanding than banana). Nearly all farmers grew banana in monoculture, maintained plant density at 2-3 plants/mat through regular de-suckering, spread banana leaves and/or imported grass as mulch, and maintained clean fields through hand-weeding. Additionally, 40% of interviewed farmers applied cattle manure while 20% constructed bunds for erosion control. Half of the farmers uprooted corms for weevil control. Pests: Wilting of matooke considered most serious constraint. Banana weevil also considered important. Soils: Generally stony and shallow. Bananas were planted on the richest and deepest soils. Farmers believed intensified banana production was offset by good soil management practices (mulching, manure, erosion control) and that soil fertility was not a constraint in banana stands. However, soil degradation was reflected in decreased yields in other crops. 5. Future of banana production The District Agriculture Officer of Mbarara indicated that banana production had increased 4 fold over the last 10 years and was still going up. Mean bunch size in the 1990s continued to be > 40 kg and farmers saw no reason why they could not maintain this level of production. SITE 15: KABUYANDA (MBARARA DISTRICT) Location: 4 villages 60 km S of Mbarara, on edge of Kabuyanda Valley Village size: 1500 households in a 32 km2 area Topography: Large, flat valley Access: Fair to Mbarara; fair-good to Kabale. Site remote from trading centres and latter part of murram road from Mbarara crosses small but steep mountain range before descending to the site. This descent was rough, poorly maintained and difficult to pass in the rainy season. A better maintained, flat murram road crossed Kabuyanda Valley to the Mbarara-Bushenyi tarmac road, providing easier access to Kabale than to Mbarara. Ethnic groups: Bakiga with Banyankole and Bafumbira. Land tenure: Freehold or customary Land pressure: Low, although intensive agriculture practiced near trading centres Farm size: 2 ha Dominant farming systems: Banana and annual food crops Banana production: Heavy, dominated by AAA-EA beer clones Banana dynamics: Area first settled in 1952 and remained sparsely populated until construction of road in 1970s. Immigrants initially favoured annual crops but began switching to cooking banana in 1970s for reasons of food security and an emerging though sporadic markets. A weekly market drew traders from Kabale, Mbarara and Kampala. Cooking banana, juice and gin (waragi) marketed in Mbarara/Kampala; beans and maize in Kabale/Rwanda. Remoteness of site and sporadic visits of banana traders had following ramifications: 1. low farm-gate price 2. casual labour not profitable in banana; directed to annual crops 3. clones for juice and brewing (with longer storage lives) favoured 4. most families owned distilling facility 5. alternate markets for beans and maize (Kabale and Rwanda) attractive 6. less than 50% of cooking banana marketed 7. post-harvest losses high in absence of traders. Figure 16: Time line demonstrating production levels of cooking bananas in Kabuyanda. Table 1. Farmers ranking of food and cash crops in the 1970s and 1990s (11 July 1995) in Kabuyanda
Beer bananas = Mbidde Table 2. Status of AAA-EA banana clones grown in Kabuyanda in 1990s
* = beer clones Notes: Kayinja (ABB), Kisubi (AB) and Ndizi (AB) also grown. Although gin (waragi) important source of income, few brewing clones (5 highland and 2 exotic) due to uncertainty of future market Table 3. Farmer rankings of key factors contributing to banana expansion in Kabuyanda
1 = most important Note: Cooking banana gained importance as food crop due to stable yields, reduced risk and year-round harvest. Population growth and market demand have driven increase in banana hectarage, while latter has also resulted in better management Management: Both men and women involved in banana production. Men initially produced beer banana for local beer brewing and distilling of gin and later directed increasing attention to cooking banana as its market developed. Migrant labour too costly for banana production, with daily wages exceeding farm-gate prices for a bunch, and are, therefore, most often employed in beans production, beer making and the production of gin. Banana was grown in monoculture for maximal yield, with plant density maintained at 2 to 3 per mat by regular de-suckering. Fields were regularly weeded during the rainy season, while pseudostem splitting, detrashing and de-leafing were done in the dry season. Mulching with banana trash, annual crop residues and grass common Pests: Banana weevil important, with problems worsening from 1986. Termites major problem in removing mulches. Fusarium wilt was reported on Ndiizi and Kayinja Soils: Banana planted on deep soils in the valley bottom and on the tops of the hills, but seldom on mountain slopes. Soils relatively fertile, although farmers related high clay content to lower yields and shorter plantation life than obtained elsewhere in Mbarara. As banana stands declined, new plantations were often opened on remaining virgin land Future of banana production Cooking banana likely to remain an important food crop and moderately important cash crop. Farmers believe that yields can be sustained with current management practices PART 4: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS John Lynam assisted in problem definition and project formation. Paul Smithson provided analysis of soil and of foliar samples. Beverly McIntyre conducted DRIS analysis for foliar nutrient data and offered insights into interpretation of these data. Funding for both the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and the Ugandan National Banana Program was provided by the Rockefeller Foundation and the Ugandan government. The research team is most grateful to the extension service and local council officials whose assistance in mobilising people for interviews was invaluable. We are grateful to Michael Wejuli and Richard Ssedege for collection of data while John Lynam and Akin Adesina are thanked for their critical comments on an earlier draft of this document. References Angeles, D.E., Sumner, M.E. and Lahav, E. 1993. Preliminary DRIS norms for banana. Journal of Plant Nutrition 16:1059-1070. Gold, C.S., Speijer, P.R., Karamura, E.B., Tushemereirwe, W.K. and Kashaija, I.N. 1994a. Survey methodologies for pest and disease assessment in Uganda. African Crop Science Journal 2:309-321. Gold, C.S., Karamura, E.B., Kiggundu,A., Bagamba, F. and Abera, A.M.K. 1999. Geographic shifts in highland cooking banana (Musa spp., group AAA-EA) production in Uganda. International Journal of Sustainable Agriculture and World Ecology 6:45-59. INIBAP. 1986. A Preliminary Study of the Needs for Banana Research in Eastern Africa INIBAP doc. EA-001e. Montpellier. 98 pp + appendices. Jagtap, S.S. 1993. Site selection using GIS for effective biological and integrated control of highland banana pests. In: Proceedings of a Research Coordination Meeting for Biological and Integrated Control of Highland Banana Pests and Diseases in Africa. Gold, C.S. and Gemmel, B. (Eds.), pp 25-36. Cotonou, 12-14 November, 1993. Parish, O.H. 1969. Report on a tour of the banana exporting countries of The Caribbean and comments on The relevance of modern methods of banana production and research to the "Matoke" crop in Uganda. Report to the Rockefeller Foundation, Nairobi, Kenya. 17pp. Sebasigari, K. and Stover, R.H. 1988. Banana Diseases and Pests in East Africa: Report of a survey in November 1987. INIBAP. Montpellier. Sengooba, T. 1986. Survey of Banana Pest Problem Complex in Rakai and Masaka Districts, August 1986: Preliminary Trip Report. Uganda Ministry of Agriculture. Kawanda Research Station. 10pp. Tothill, J.D. 1940. Agriculture in Uganda. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 546pp. Uganda Ministry of Agriculture. 1992. Report on Ugandan National Census of Agriculture and Livestock (1990-1991). Entebbe, Uganda. 82 pp + 40 tables. Wortmann, C.S., Bosch, C.H. and Mukandala, L. 1994. Foliar nutrient analyses in bananas grown in the Highlands of East Africa. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science 172:223-226. 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