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MEETING REPORTS

The First IGBP Congress

Sheila Lunter, Information Officer, IGBP

During five days in April, the IGBP's leading researchers assembled in the small medieval town of Bad Munstereifel, Germany, for the First IGBP Congress. This was the first time in the ten year history of the IGBP that all the Programme Element (PE) Scientific Steering Committees (SSC) had met together. As emphasised by Chris Rapley, the IGBP Executive Director, and Peter Liss, the SC-IGBP Chairman, in their opening speeches, a major objective of the meeting was to reinforce the "corporate identity" of the IGBP, and to place ever-greater emphasis on the integration and synthesis of the Programme's results.

This theme was expanded in the key-note address, "The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme: A Study of Global Change and the Human Prospect" delivered by Thomas Malone, one of the originators of the Programme. In his speech, Professor Malone maintained that current human activities are inequitable, unsustainable, and probably unstable. He emphasised that the IGBP and related research activities provide essential input for the attainment of a sustainable human society, and outlined some development paths by which the human race could achieve this. He noted the crucial importance of strengthening the involvement of researchers from within the social sciences.

On the first and the last full days of the Congress, the Programme Element SSCs held their business meetings. These included special emphasis on inter-Programme Element collaboration, and significant progress was made in terms of planning and specific agreements.

The second full day was dedicated to presentations from the Chairs of each of the eleven IGBP Programme Elements in which they reviewed recent successes and future plans. It was apparent that the Programme is continuing to develop rapidly, with the emergence of a wide variety of new results. A presentation was also given by John Marks, the new Chair of the International Group of Funding Agencies (IGFA) (and a previous IGBP Executive Director) on the current status and plans of IGFA. For the following two days participants were able to sign up for theme sessions organised by members of the SC-IGBP ("top down") and the Programme Elements ("bottom up") respectively. The SC-IGBP sessions covered the topics of "Ice and Earth System Variability", "Ecological Buffering in Global Change", "Modelling of the Total Earth System", "Global Change and Food Supplies", "Capacity Building", "Scaling", and "Closing the Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles". In each case a series of presentations was followed by open discussion, which were universally lively and productive.

The sessions organised by the Programme Elements covered a wide variety of topics including "The Amazonian Large-scale Biosphere Atmosphere experiment (LBA)", "The ISLSCP Global Datasets", "Mountain Hydrology", "Land Use and Land Cover Change as a driver of Global Change", "Net Primary Productivity modelling", "PAGES-START (PEP iii, Africa)", "PAGES and its relation to other Programme Elements", "Research on the Arctic Drainage Basin and its link to Climate Change", "The Weather Generator", "PalaeoTrace Gas Evolution over the last 150 years", "General Interactions between IGAC and GCTE", and "IGBP Oceans Research". Once again, the sessions were lively and resulted in much valuable debate, followed up where appropriate in the subsequent SSC meetings.

The venue of the Congress was the Bad Munstereifel Kurhaus, an old monastery which was renovated and converted only relatively recently. All activities including the plenary and break-out sessions, meetings, breaks, lunches and dinners took place at the Kurhaus, providing a rich opportunity for SSC members to meet with their colleagues in other Programme Elements. Indeed, throughout the proceedings, the development of new contacts, new ideas and new insights into the activities and methods of the different IGBP PEs was much in evidence.

In spite of a demanding schedule, there was some time for social interaction and some (brief) relaxation. An opportunity to see the medieval church of the town of Bad Munstereifel was offered on the Saturday night, when the town organised a concert for the Congress participants. Organist Margareta Hurholz played pieces of Bach, Beer and Widor in historic and evocative surroundings. The Congress was concluded by a memorable banquet, following a fascinating address by Nobel Prize winner Paul Crutzen, on the development and discoveries of atmospheric chemistry over the past 30 years. Paul's long involvement with the IGBP started with his membership of Co- ordinating Panel 1, which evolved into the IGAC Core Project. He continues as one of the IGAC Vice Chairs.

The Congress was organised by the IGBP Secretariat, especially Neil Swanberg and June Bostrom, with the help of Helmut Kuhr, Sabine Lutkemeier and their team of local organisers. The widely acclaimed smooth-running of the event owes much to their collective dedication and detailed planning. The Congress was financed from the IGBP central budget, with generous support from the German Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Technology (BMBF) and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). The Congress was widely acknowledged as a great success. As noted by Chris Rapley in his final summary, it heralded the entry of the IGBP into a new and crucial phase of its development in which unique new forms of research projects are emerging, and in which the programme level integration and synthesis of results is becoming a reality. Now is the time to consolidate the progress and links forged in Bad Munstereifel. Many a challenge still lies ahead, but the spirit of the Congress will ensure that for the future of the IGBP, no obstacle is too high.

Brief report on various meetings at the ICSU Headquarters

Julia Marton-Lefevre, Executive Director, ICSU

The months of April and May were busy ones at the ICSU Secretariat in Paris. The third meeting of J-GOOS (Joint Scientific and Technical Committee for the Global Ocean Observing System) took place from 23 to 25 April, followed immediately by a strategic meeting on a possible role of ICSU in Science and Technology for Earth Management (STEM).

J-GOOS is one of the three global observing systems in which ICSU is involved, and it is co-sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, IOC, and the World Meteorological Organization, WMO. J-GOOS is working on several specific topics, including on ocean observations for climate; health of the oceans, living marine resources and coastal zones.

The participants at the meeting on STEM suggested that ICSU should clearly articulate the responsibility of scientists in ensuing that wise decisions are made about the sustainable use of the Earth's resources. Recommendations from this meeting are being submitted to appropriate ICSU bodies and the General Assembly.

The 11th meeting of the Advisory Committee on Environment (ACE) was held in Paris on 8 and 9 May. This was the last meeting under the chairmanship of Professor J.W.M. la Riviere, who was instrumental in creating ACE in 1989. The new Chairman of ACE, as of May 10, 1996, is Professor J.J. McCarthy, former Chair of the SC-IGBP. ACE continued its work of monitoring progress in the major global change research programmes (IGBP, WCRP, DIVERSITAS, IHDP) and the three global observing systems (GCOS, GOOS, GTOS) in which ICSU is involved. ACE also provides advice to the Executive Board about numerous partnership arrangements between ICSU and other bodies, such as the UN Commission on Sustainable Development, the Earth Council, the Coordinating Committee on the World Climate Programme and the various Framework Conventions related to the environment. ACE will continue to give guidance to ICSU on the activities being planned to mark the five years after the Rio Conference on Environment and Development.

The Panel on the Assessment of ICSU held its second meeting in Paris on 12, 13 and 14 May, providing Panel Members the possibility to interact with members of the Executive Board. One of the many tasks of the Panel was to review numerous responses from ICSU Members, Associates and partners to a letter from the Panel Chairman, Dr. R. Schmitt, soliciting inputs to the assessment process. A report on the Assessment is expected for the General Assembly.

The Standing Finance Committee held its annual meeting on 12-13 May and reviewed the financial results of 1995, as well as making plans for the future budgets of ICSU. Recommendations about finance were sent to the Members of ICSU in May, in preparation for the General Assembly.

The 70th meeting of the Executive Board of ICSU was held at the ICSU Secretariat from 14 to 16 May.

Executive Board and Assessment Panel Members were invited for dinner by the President of the French Academy of Sciences, Dr. Marianne Grunberg-Manago, who informed her guests that as a former Union and now Academy President, she was able to appreciate ICSU's role from both perspectives.

The Board continued its careful review of the follow-up to the Resolutions of the 24th General Assembly and of the 33rd and 34th meetings of the General Committee. The Board finalized a Statement on Animal Research which was a result of comprehensive consultations with ICSU Members and the International Council on Laboratory Animal Science. The Board also heard with interest reports of progress made in the setting up of a new Union of Computing Science and Informatics which may be eligible for membership in ICSU in the future.

The Standing Finance Committee (SFC) having met in Paris immediately prior to the Executive Board, the Treasurer and Chairman of the SFC reported on ICSU's financial position to date and on preliminary budgets for the ensuing years. Plans for a meeting on the future of the ICSU grants programme were noted and it was agreed to discuss the recommendations of this meeting at the 71st meeting of the Board.

In reviewing the situation of the Secretariat, the grant from the National Science Foundation of the USA to help ICSU with its varied work in the area of the environment was noted with pleasure and gratitude. The grant allows for the addition of a new person in the Secretariat to be charged with environmental matters.

The Board also discussed the future arrangements for the Standing Committee on the Freedom in the Conduct of Science (SCFCS), and accepted with gratitude the invitation by the Swiss Academy of Sciences to house the Secretariat as of 1997. The Board also accepted, in principle, the invitation from the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters to host the Secretariat for the proposed Standing Committee on Responsibility and Ethics in Science, if this is set up by the General Assembly.

The Executive Board reviewed the preparations for the 25th General Assembly of ICSU, and discussed a number of proposals being forwarded to the Assembly for decision, including those dealing with the follow-up to the Conference on Electronic Publishing, the setting up of a Scientific Committee on Sciences for Food Security, and the launching of a major Programme on Capacity Building in Science.

In reviewing the various activities in the area of the environment with which ICSU is involved, the Board's work was greatly facilitated by the recommendations and advice provided by the Advisory Committee on the Environment (ACE) on such matters as the invitations to new members of the Scientific Committees for the IGBP and the WCRP, the increased cooperation between the Global Observing Systems (GCOS, GOOS and GTOS), the developments in the newly co-sponsored International Human Dimensions Programme in Global Environmental Change (IHDP) and the partnership with UN and other bodies in the actions planned to mark the fifth anniversary, in 1997, of the Conference on the Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.

The Executive Board also discussed the various cooperative actions involving ICSU and developing countries (primarily through COSTED-IBN and TWAS, and also work with the scientific communities in the former Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe. Plans for a Workshop on Financing Basic Research in Central and Eastern Europe and the FSU, (Paris, July 1996) were reviewed and the EB was pleased to note the numerous partners that have joined ICSU in the organization of this meeting.

The Executive Board also provided guidance to the Secretariat in its continued attempt to improve its outreach activities through the World Wide Web and written publications. The 71st meeting of the Executive Board will take place in Washington in September 1996.

The Secretaries General of the Unions and interdisciplinary ICSU bodies were invited to an informal meeting at the ICSU Secretariat on 17 May. The meeting, chaired by the President of ICSU, was attended by several Officers. Nineteen of the Unions and 13 of the interdisciplinary or standing committees were represented at this meeting which served as a useful forum to exchange and share information on topics of common concern and interest. The Chairman of the Committee on Capacity Building in Science, Professor Leon Lederman, addressed the group and asked for advice in preparation for his Committee's forthcoming meeting, and the Officers of the Standing Committees on the Freedom in the Conduct of Science and the ICSU Press also discussed ways of involving the ICSU bodies further in their work. It was agreed that such meetings are useful and should be repeated periodically.

The third meeting of the Committee on Capacity Building in Science (CCBS) was held in Paris on 20-21 May. Committee members finalized their proposal for ICSU to launch a major Programme on Capacity Building in Science to be submitted to the General Assembly in September.

GETTING TO KNOW

A World Network of Historical Research

Robert Halleux, Secretary, Division of History of Science of IUHPS Benoit Severyns, Executive Assistant

Although the Division of History of Science (DHS) is relatively discreet among the various bodies of ICSU, it is very rich in human resources, activities and projects. The scientific profiles of the officers of DHS reflect the diversity of the discipline. Our Past President, William Shea, is one of the leading personalities in the history of the Scientific Revolution. President Robert Fox (UK) is an historian of the relationship between science and industry in the nineteenth century; the first Vice-President Raffaella Simili (Italy), an historian of scientific institutions; the second Vice President Mary Jo Nye (USA), a specialist on Chemistry in the nineteenth century; the Secretary General Robert Halleux (Belgium), an historian of pre-Lavoisian chemistry and metallurgy; Treasurer David King (Germany) is dealing with Arabic astronomy and scientific instruments.

The same wide scope of interests can be found among the assessors: Shuntaro Ito (History of Mathematics); Ubiratan d'Ambrosio (mathematics); Chen Meidong (history of Astronomy); S.M.R. Ansari (astronomy, especially in the Islamic world); Juan Jose Saldana (history of science in Latin America); Vladimir Kirsanov (Russian scientific revolution).

DHS includes forty-two national committees. Many of them are developing important research activities. The most recent members, the Baltic States and some Islamic countries (Iran and Pakistan), reflect the major intellectual changes that are currently taking place in these areas.

The emerging historical consciousness of the Baltic area is closely related to the present political, economic and cultural development of the region. Conferences sponsored by DHS regularly gather researchers from Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Russia, and Scandinavian countries.

The Islamic world is developing its own approach to its scientific heritage in the framework of a global reflection on the relationship between the Koran and science and its social, ethical and political implications. This is why the DHS Secretariat has built new links with countries like Malysia and Uzbekistan. The DHS-DLMPS (Division of Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science) joint meeting, to be held in Liege on 15-16 December 1996 will be devoted to the relationship between science and religion in the Muslim world and in the West.

In addition, DHS includes eight transnational scientific commissions:

- Bibliography and documentation (President Roderick Home, Australia)

- Islamic Civilization (President S.M.R. Ansari, India)

- Modern Physics (President R. Stuewer, F. Bevilacqua, USA and Italy

- Oceanography (President Eric Mills, Canada)

- Pacific Circle (President D. Stoddart, USA)

- Scientific instruments (President R.G.W. Anderson, UK)

- Teaching of history of science (president Alistair M. Duncan, UK)

- Women in science, technology and medicine (President Eva Vamos, Hungary)

- History of Astronomy (DHS and International Astronomical Union

- History of Geographical Thought (DHS and International Geographical Union)

- History of Geological science (DHS and International Union of Geological Sciences)

- History of Mathematics (DHS and International Mathematical Union).

Two Strategic Priorities

For DHS, one of the main priorities is the keeping of the records of contemporary science. Indeed, our discipline is increasingly turning towards XXth century science. It is understandable since our century has witnessed more scientific revolutions than all previous centuries together. However, and quite paradoxically, we are less documented on the XXth century than on the Scientific Revolution because laboratory and scientific papers are regularly disposed of and their lifetime is very short. ln order to establish priorities, the Commission on Bibliography and Documentation and the International Council on Archives organised a conference entitled "Archiving the records of contemporary science", in Liege, on 28-29 May. DHS is trying to awaken all its national committees to the necessity of a policy to be followed in this field and is sending them guidelines in this respect. It is equally important that the different Scientific Unions of ICSU be aware of the emergency of preserving materials for future historical research and that they also inform their national scientific committees.

The second priority is a global reflection on the relationships between pure and applied science in its technological and industrial context. These relationships have evolved in the course of time and need a critical reappraisal. Indeed, historical research seems able to give new insights in contemporary debates. For many years, DHS has had close links with ICOHTECH, which coordinates cooperation in the field of history of technology. But historians of science and historians of technology and industry still belong, in many respects, to two separate worlds. In order to bridge a gap between these researchers, the XXth International Congress of History of Science will be devoted to the theme Science, Technology and Industry. The venue is not only the headquarters of the Secretary General, Professor Halleux, but it is also one of the birthplaces of the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century. The Congress will take place from 20 to 26 July 1997.

For further information, please contact:

Congress Office
Centre d'Histoire des Sciences et des Techniques
Universite de Liege
15 Avenue des Tilleuls
4000 Liege, Belgium

Tel: +32 41 66.94.79
Fax: +32 41 66 95 47
E-mail: halleux@chst.ulg.ac.be

Keeping the Windows to the Radio Universe open: The side effects of increased telecommunication

Willem A. Baan, Chairman of Inter-Union Commission on Frequency Allocations for Radio Astronomy and Space Science (IUCAF)

Do you use a cellular telephone daily? a pager? satellite TV and CD-quality audio broadcasting? a GPS global positioning system? Are these services essential in your life? If so, then you are part of the rapidly growing global demand on a global resource, which has detrimental effects on part of the scientific community.

The electromagnetic spectrum is a natural resource. It is renewable in the sense that any pollution disappears at the speed of light. However, for a passive user using the same part of the spectrum the damage done can be significant. Passive users of the spectrum can be either radio astronomers using very large telescopes to study extremely weak celestial sources, or the space research community and remote sensing radio scientists studying the Earth's surface. For reference, I note that a standard cellular phone transmitting from the surface of the Moon would appear to be among the three strongest radio sources in the Universe. Optical astronomers have already been driven from urban areas because of the reality of light and air pollution. The continuous demand for radio spectrum and the lack of appropriate protection for the radio astronomy and passive services are devastating to passive radio research. Soon our window to the radio universe will not have a clean spectral pinhole to look through. Will it be possible to continue to protect the passive radio spectrum use from global problems of man-made electromagnetic signals?

The problems for the passive users come mostly from active users (employing powerful transmitters), because their bands are interspersed between passive bands. In reality, the spectrum has been sliced up like "a layer cake" without much foresight on how each band could be used in the future. Technically it is very difficult to completely contain emissions inside an assigned band and a small fraction of the emission (roughly 0.001% or less of the peak) will spill into adjacent bands or even into harmonically related bands at multiples of the assigned frequency. But even such weak spills pose a significant problem for a passive user studying even weaker signals in an adjacent band. Filtering and good engineering practices can eliminate much of these weak "unwanted" emissions. The travel distance along the curved Earth surface and intervening terrain will attenuate all emissions from terrestrial services reaching a telescope. The Earth's terrain, however, does not protect a telescope from satellite and aeronautical transmissions.

Spectrum allocation and spectrum use is regulated by national administrations, but under internationally agreed guidelines. The international forum is the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) located in Geneva. At regular (presently two year) intervals, the member governments convene to decide on new rules on how to use certain bands of the spectrum. Over the years, the passive user community has been allocated several bands across the spectrum for exclusive use or for sharing with other (active) services. The bands allocated to Earth Exploration (passive), Space Research (passive) and the Radio Astronomy Service (RAS) allow observations of special phenomena, such as spectral lines of atoms and molecules in the Earth atmosphere, in our Galaxy and in many distant galaxies. Other bands are set aside for broadband continuum observations. Within the ITU Radio Regulations these passive and radio astronomy bands are generally protected with the wording <de .facto, radio astronomy receives insufficient protection.

IUCAF, as a representative of the passive spectrum users of IAU, URSI and COSPAR, actively participates in the world of ITU regulation. Ten radio astronomers participated in the recent World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC-95) in October/November 1995. IUCAF has non-voting observer status at the ITU. The radio astronomy service successfully "held the fort" and even slightly improved the protection status for certain bands. IUCAF members and other radio scientists also play a very active role in the ITU Study Groups, which have an advisory and preparatory role in the ITU organization. IUCAF coordinates policy and exchanges experience with regional committees such as CRAF, the Committee on Radio Astronomy Frequencies sponsored by the European Science Foundation in CEPT countries, and CORF, Committee on Radio Frequencies sponsored by the USA Academy of Sciences. Little spectrum has been allocated for passive use over the years, less than one percent of spectrum below 10 GHz, some of it even shared with other services, and 4.7 percent below 30 GHz. Nevertheless, a continuous battle needs to be fought for protection of these bands, because after all it "costs" money to protect these bands. Other spectrum users consider the passive spectrum as prime "spectrum real estate", that is of great lucrative value.

The plight of the passive users is exemplified by the current proceedings of ITU-R Task Group 1-3. The objective of this Task

Group is to propose new regulatory standards on "unwanted emission" to be considered at WRC-97, with particular reference to protecting the radio astronomy service. However, economic and technical arguments weigh much more than the desire of protection. Since radio telescopes cannot hide from space stations, satellite transmissions can be particularly damaging. For example, during a recent meeting of TG 1-3, the space service lobby, led by a European direct-TV satellite company called ASTRA, was particularly adamant against setting meaningful standards for unwanted emissions for the space services. At present, a faulty ASTRA satellite negligently transmits inside a passive band at 10.7 GHz. Because corrective retrofitting of satellites is time consuming and expensive, often an interfering satellite must die before a fix can be made. In another interference case, IUCAF and the administration of the Russian GLONASS global positioning satellite system finally agreed in 1993 on system modifications to alleviate the interference in the 1612 MHz RAS band. But it will take until the year 2005 before these measures are fully implemented. Nevertheless, the newly proposed Motorola IRIDIUM system with 66 satellites seeks access to this same RAS band part of the time. On the other hand, there are proposed satellite systems that keep unwanted emissions in mind, employ good engineering and design practices, and fully protect the passive services.

How do the passive spectrum users proceed in their effort to keep the spectrum "clean" for passive use in the face of these enormous economic pressures ? Within the ITU many administrations show great consideration for the passive services and consider it a necessity to give a clean spectral heritage to future generations. But very often support only comes when it does not cost anything. One effective way of protecting the spectrum is to promote "spectrum efficiency" by reducing unwanted emissions. Unfortunately, some spectrum regulators consider spectrum efficiency equivalent to "any unused spectrum is wasted spectrum". In the case of air and water pollution, the general rule is that the polluter cleans up. Why not extend this to the electromagnetic spectrum and insist that responsible engineering practices and the reduction of unwanted emission be part of the cost of doing business ?

Although "telecommunication" is a primary mission for the ITU, decisions made must be balanced and must not overemphasize economic aspects and commercial lobbying. In particular, commercial entities should not obtain ITU voting rights in the future. In retrospect, many of the present problems in the spectrum world are consequences of unwise decisions from the past. For instance, the layer cake approach to spectrum management will continue to cause problems. Common wisdom dictates that inherently interfering services should not be located in bands adjacent to those that require cleanliness, unless sufficient protective guard bands are created. In particular, space services should be allocated to bands where they do the least damage to other services. Strong regulations should be put in place to ensure that the space services do not interfere even with each other. Furthermore, some administrations are currently looking at spectrum auctions to cover budget deficits. With spectrum being sold to the highest bidder, spectrum bands become the property (alas !) of the commercial companies and their use a right instead of a privilege.

Wisdom in spectrum assignments will particularly be required in the higher frequency regime of mm-wave frequencies, where currently new services are introduced. For many years the radio astronomers successfully pierced through the Earth's atmosphere from their high and dry mountain tops at frequencies from 30 GHz to 800 GHz. At these frequencies there has been no man-made interference because no other services were using these bands. However, the recent availability of new technology opens up possibilities for commercial applications. In particular mass produced systems, such as "collision-avoidance radars" for automobiles need to be designed carefully in order to avoid harmful effects for other spectrum users. Radio astronomers may not need access to the spectrum at all places on Earth. Certain administrations have instituted geographical protection zones to effectively protect the national observatories from ground based transmitters, although not from aeronautical and space systems. Protection zones of limited size, which prohibit any high frequency transmitter, will be an effective and necessary part of protecting mm-wave observatories.

Soon we will be able to enrich our life style with satellite paging and cellular phone services, and multisatellite data and Internet services. Soon also our automobile radar system will give proximity warnings. All this progress should not be made at the cost of losing our capacity to look at the Universe through the radio window.

Arecibo Observatory is part of the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center and is operated by Cornell University under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation.

More information on passive spectrum issues can be obtained from:

IUCAF, Arecibo Observatory Barrio Esperanza
Arecibo, PR 00613, USA
Tel: +1 (787) 878 2612
Fax: +1 (787) 878 1861
Email: willem@naic.edu WWW:http://www.naic.edu/iucaf/

Sophie Boyer King

Sophie Boyer King, Environmental Science Officer at ICSU was born in France and educated both in France and the UK with an international background. She obtained a BSc in Biology from the University of Bristol in 1993 and MSc in Ecological Economics from the University of Edinburgh in 1994. After a few months travelling in the Australian continent and in South East Asia, she returned to the UK. She worked in Edinburgh as an Investment Administrator in a large American Bank, Bankers Trust, where she was responsible for some of their French operations. Her fields of interest remaining in the processes of environmental change, and the multidisciplinary nature of science for policy-making, she joined ICSU at the end of June 1996.

SPOTLIGHTS ON SCIENCE

World Climate Research Programme (WCRP): Successes Stimulate Far-reaching Plans: A report of the 17th meeting of the Joint Scientific Committee for WCRP

Hartmut Grassl, Director, WCRP

The seventeenth session of the Joint Scientific Committee (JSC) for the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) was held from 11 to 16 March 1996 in Toulouse, France, following the kind invitation by Meteo-France and CERFACS (Centre Europeen de Recherche et de Formation Avancee en Calcul Scientifique). Several decisions taken reflected the increasing pressure both politically and from funding agencies for more coordination and cooperation between the major global change research programmes.

Coordination of Global Change Research

The successfully completed first project of WCRP, TOGA (Tropical Ocean/Global Atmosphere, 1985 to 1994) has demonstrated some predictability of the El Nino circulation anomaly up to one year ahead. The use of its results can be seen as an example of the effective integration of research, impact assessment (of climate variability) and, for some countries, the adaptation of agriculture to the seasonal climate predictions instigated by TOGA. The Climate Agenda, an Integrating Framework for the World Climate Programme (WCP), accepted by all partners (FAO, ICSU, UNEP, UNESCO and its IOC, WMO) in 1995, is trying to develop a similar end-to-end system involving all four components of the WCP. Therefore, all WCRP projects were asked by the JSC to report their main actions/achievements/ deliverables for inclusion into the action plan of the Climate Agenda.

The JSC endorsed a pilot project on Climate Variability Prediction for Agriculture to be implemented within the START framework. This new project will need input from at least four WCRP and IGBP projects and will also have a strong IHDP component. Provided the START Standing Committee and the Scientific Committees of IGBP and IHDP endorse the proposal, detailed planning and implementation will be considered with the START Secretariat. The project would comprise four elements:

- a regional research network, building on results already available in the region;

- development of the observed crop yield/climate variability relation via modelling of crop yield as a function of a given climate variability pattern;

- the use of climate variability (predictions) for crop yield forecasts;

- encouragement of changed agricultural practices based on actual climate anomaly predictions, taking into account the regional infrastructure and the larger scale food markets.

Coordination of WCRP Projects

With the principal endorsement of the science plan of the newest WCRP project on Climate Variability and Predictability (CLIVAR) at the 16th session of JSC in 1995, WCRP has entered a new phase aiming at the understanding of climate variability and, to the extent possible, climate prediction of the full climate system on a timescale up to a century. Obviously, this study has to include the influence of mankind on global climate as well as the changes of the chemistry of the atmosphere and the vegetation cover. This also means that the progress in process studies, for example, cloud radiation interaction as investigated by the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX) and the sea-ice atmosphere interaction in the Arctic studied by the Arctic Climate System Study (ACSYS) have to be rapid to make all three thrusts of CLIVAR successful:

- in thrust 1, seasonal to interannual climate variability will be studied and, if possible, extending predictive capability at this time range to the entire globe.

- in thrust 2, the decadal to centennial climate variability will be investigated with a special emphasis on the role of the oceans in the global coupled climate system.

- in thrust 3, the quantification of anthropogenic climate change and projections of future climate are the foci.

The determination of global fields of air-sea fluxes of momentum, sensible and latent heat, radiation and water vapour is of fundamental importance to all components of WCRP, but especially for WOCE and CLIVAR. Therefore, the JSC established, after the presentation of a workshop report, a task group on air-sea fluxes to catalogue and evaluate strengths and weaknesses of existing air-sea flux data sets.

Climate Modelling

All WCRP projects have a modelling sub-group promoting the integration of new insights from process studies and refined global observations into state-of-the-art models of the general circulation of the atmosphere and the oceans. The recent statement by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its second scientific assessment that "the balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate" would not have been possible without the progress in three-dimensional coupled ocean-atmosphere modelling. These models simulate climate variability on time-scales up to several decades to such a degree of realism that they can be used together with paleoclimatic reconstructions, radiative forcing trends and pattern recognition methods for meaningful detection studies. The JSC members were impressed by the presentation of Dr. B. Santer, the convening lead author of the chapter "Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes" of the IPCC assessment describing the scientific basis for these studies. However, for more confident attribution of causes, we still need far better paleoclimatic reconstructions, model parameterizations and data on the history of radiative forcing. The JSC asked all WCRP projects to review their activities that directly support or are relevant to anthropogenic climate change studies, also including the subject of improved assessment of regional change, for example by "downscaling" of model results.

Climate Monitoring

The JSC prepared a statement on the need for improved climate monitoring (including hydrological and oceanographic parameters) to be sent to international programmes (GCOS, GTOS, GOOS), intergovernmental bodies (WMO, IOC), major space agencies and national operational agencies, calling attention to the possibility of readily enhancing the value of many types of observations for monitoring purposes at roughly present funding levels. JSC will also include in future meetings a discussion of climate monitoring and review with GCOS, operational climate monitoring, climate data products and potential WCRP contributions to GCOS.

Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX)

The production of global climatology data sets has been given high priority in the overall GEWEX scientific strategy. Several of these time-series, including cloud and precipitation as well as surface solar radiation fluxes, inferred from a combination of in situ and remote sensing data, continue to be assembled. A recent exciting development is the availability for the first time of the observed water vapour column content showing systematic variability from year to year on global scales. These data sets are the basis for climate model evaluation.

Concerning surface process studies, GEWEX has now started the implementation of continental-scale hydrometeorological experiments for the Mississippi, the MacKenzie and the Amazon river basins, as well as for the Asian monsoon area and the Baltic Sea catchment, coordinated by the GEWEX Hydrometeorology Panel. For these experiments the JSC adopted an additional criterion, proposed by the GEWEX Scientific Steering Group, i.e., collaborative agreements with water resource agencies or related client/user groups to better utilize improved continental-scale information with the objective of assessing the impacts on regional water resources.

This leads to the third main activity of GEWEX, modelling and prediction, in which both the coupling of vegetation plus soils to general atmospheric circulation models and a better cloud parameterization are the main thrusts, in order to extend the predictability range of rainfall, especially for the interior of continents. However, progress in the understanding of cloud processes could be delayed due to the lack of a three-dimensional observation of water in the atmosphere in all its three phases. Space agencies will be consulted to see whether their plans in this respect can be expanded.

World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE)

The full scientific return of WOCE will be realized, after the completion of the field phase in 1997, in the analysis, interpretation, modelling and synthesis phase only if the resources for developing and using global ocean models for prognostic studies and assimilation are made available. The Chairman of JSC and the Director of the WCRP will ask for national commitments to support these efforts to ensure that WOCE meets its primary objectives of producing a dynamically consistent description of the global ocean in the 1990s, and of developing improved models that accurately reproduce the ocean circulation. A highlight of the JSC meeting was the presentation of TOPEX/POSEIDON results by Dr. J.-F. Minster, who showed that these altimetric measurements achieve an accuracy of a few centimetres for local ocean topography, is able to measure global mean sea level every 10 days and shows an astonishingly large sea level rise significantly correlated to mean ocean surface temperature during the first three years with continuous data.

Stratospheric Processes and their Role in Climate

Although only recently started, SPARC could already report that the stratospheric temperature data sets evaluated as a whole, reveal a significant cooling trend during recent decades which is mainly due to ozone depletion in the lower stratosphere and to the increased greenhouse effect in higher layers of the stratosphere. JSC endorsed SPARC plans for a global stratosphere/troposphere exchange study as part of a comprehensive implementation plan.

Polar Climate and the Arctic Climate System Study (ACSYS)

While ACSYS concentrates on the determination of the net fresh water flux from the Arctic Ocean, which is fundamental to the understanding of the thermohaline circulation of the global ocean, there is still no internationally co-ordinated effort to determine the influence of the entire cryosphere on global climate. JSC therefore charged the scientific steering groups for ACSYS and CLIVAR with the development of plans for a study of the mass balance of the Greenland ice-sheet and its stability and asked the JSC/CAS Working Group on Numerical Experimentation (WGNE) and CLIVAR Anthropogenic Climate Change Numerical Experimentation Group to assess present model simulations and diagnosis of the Greenland icesheet (possibly also including the Antarctic ice-sheet) with respect to reactions to anthropogenic forcing.

WCRP Mid-term Scientific Conference

JSC proposed venue, dates and format of the WCRP Mid-term Scientific Conference, which was recommended by an ICSU review panel in 1994. The conference will take place in Geneva and last about 3 days, during the week of 25-29 August 1997. Its main goal is the further development of the WCRP research strategy based on achievements of the projects, the statements on uncertainties in the IPCC 1995 Science Assessment and the changed expectation by governments as they implement the Framework Convention on Climate Change, JSC asked each scientific steering group to supply material on "future prospects" by September 1996 which will be used by the scientific organizing committee, chaired by Dr. J. Bruce, Canada, for a draft conference statement, to be submitted to the participants, i.e. top managers of national/global change research programmes, senior scientists, policy-makers, and senior government administrators.

SPOTLIGHTS ON SCIENCE

World Health Organization (WHO): The Advisory Committee on Health Research

B.G. Mansourian, Director, Office of Research Policy and Strategy Coordination, World Health Organization

Background

The birth of a formal research programme in WHO was marked by the creation of an "Advisory Committee on Medical Research" in 1959 (WHA12.17).

Several subsequent resolutions of the World Health Assembly punctuated the history of WHO research and provided guidance for its overall orientation.

Specific references to the ACMR (renamed Advisory Committee on Health Research by a decision of the World Health Assembly in 1986) have been made in several resolutions, for example:

(i) requesting the Director General (a) to identify with the ACMR a "list of scientific problems whose solution is of particular importance for the Organization or where progress is likely, (WHA28.70, 1975) and to (b) enhance the "role of the ACMR in formulating and evaluating the effectiveness of the Organization's long-term research programme, and improving the constitutional utilization of expert committees in this regard";

(ii) endorsing the emphasis on greater regional involvement in research, with the active participation of regional Advisory Committees on Medical Research (WHA30.40, 1977);

(iii) requesting the Director-General to involve "more closely the Executive Board, Regional Committees as appropriate, and the Advisory Committees on Medical Research in the formulation of policy, the definition of priorities and evaluation of the Organization's research activities".

Between 1980 and 1990, no less than 30 regional committee resolutions on research and the ACHR system were adopted, whereas the subject was periodically discussed at the Executive Board and the World Health Assembly in the presence of the ACHR Chairman.

The last resolution on record, WHA43.19, following the Technical Discussions on the "Role of Health Research", deals comprehensively with the subject, and requests the Director-General to "use appropriate mechanisms, in close collaboration with the global and regional Advisory Committees on Health Research, to: a) assess new and emerging areas of Science and Technology; b) investigate evolving problems of critical significance to health; c) identify appropriate methodologies for trend assessment and forecasting, including epidemiology, to improve health,>.

Meetings

The Global ACHR is made up of 18 members, and a Chairman appointed by the Director-General. The first meeting of the Global ACHR was in July 1959 and the ACHR thereafter met regularly once a year till 1986, after which it met every 2 years. The yearly meeting has now been restored with effect from 1994. The ACHR system in between meetings has been functioning through sub committees, task forces and working groups. For example, during the last two decades, the Global ACHR established subcommittees on Diarrhoeal Diseases, Mental Health, Research Career Structures, Research Administration, Health Services Research, Cancer, Working Groups on Contribution of Modern Scientific Concepts and Methods to Human Health, Diagnostic Tests for Use at Primary Health Care Level and Immunodiagnosis Simplified, Enhancement of Transfer of Technology to Developing Countries with Special Reference to Health Care, Health Manpower Research, Health Research Strategy for Health For All 2000, Research on Ageing, Economy and Health, Research Capability Strengthening, Task Forces on Health Development Research, on Science and Technology and on Evolving Problems of Critical Significance to Health. Regional ACHRs were created in 1976, although the PAHO ACHR has been in existence since 1961.

Terms of Reference

The terms of reference of the global ACHR were reaffirmed in 1994 as follows:

a) to advise the Director-General on the general orientation of WHO's research;

b) to advise on the formulation of global priorities for health research in the light of the policies set by the Health Assembly and the Executive Board and on the basis of regional priorities evolved in response to the health problems of the countries;

c) to review research activities, monitor their execution and evaluate their results, from the standpoint of scientific and technical policy;

d) to formulate ethical criteria applicable to these research activities; and

e) to take a prominent part in the harmonization of WHO's research efforts as between the country, regional and inter regional levels, and in their effective global synthesis.

At the regional level, the terms of reference are broadly equivalent:

a) advising the Regional Director on formulation of policies for the development of health research in the region, in accordance with directives provided by the governing bodies (WHA, EB and regional committees) and within the framework of the global WHO policy. This formulation includes the identification of national and regional priorities;

b) establishing mechanisms for coordinating research at national, intra- and interregional levels;

c) development of the research potential and capability, nationally and regionally;

d) harmonization of regional research activities with the activities of other regions and headquarters, in close collaboration with the global ACMR.

Priorities

Since 1976, the Global ACHR agreed on criteria for selecting priority areas for WHO research efforts and these criteria remain entirely valid:

a) the magnitude of the problem, especially in the developing countries;

b) the suitability of the problems for international collaborative research efforts coordinated by WHO;

c) the priority of the problem as perceived by individual countries themselves;

d) the relevance of the problem to the socio-economic development of Member States;

e) the probability of finding solutions (or important clarifications) and the feasibility of applying them nationally, including the time and costs required;

f) the availability of manpower, facilities and funds to carry out the research to ensure as far as possible the achievement of significant results;

g) the involvement of the countries themselves, especially their scientific communities and facilities, in the research efforts to be undertaken preferably where the problem exists, so as to upgrade national research capabilities;

h) the level of ongoing research efforts, both nationally and internationally, to solve the problem;

i) the benefits which would accrue from the application of the results of successful research efforts, especially in the developing countries;

j) the potential usefulness of the results of the research in the solution of other problems.

Peer Review

In the first two decades of its existence, the ACHR regularly reviewed virtually all the research components of WHO programmes, advised the DG on deletions, additions, and provided guidance on new frontiers for health research. The ACHR incarnated WHO's research programmes such as Human Reproduction Research (HRP), Tropical Diseases Research (TDR), and contributed to the evolution of research components of Mental Health, Diarrhoeal Diseases Control, Expanded Programme on Immunization, Acute Respiratory Infections, Health Systems Research, Health Manpower Development, etc. The Regional ACHR system, in close collaboration with national medical research councils, generally has been effective in promoting and coordinating research activities in the regions, especially at country level although efficiency of performance varies from region to region.

The ACHR played the major and prominent role in organizing and guiding the WHA's Technical Discussion in 1990 on "Role of Health Research Strategy in the Strategy for Health for All in the Year 2000", with the focus on Health Systems Research, Research Capability Strengthening, Nutrition, and Biological and Physical Sciences and Technology. The outcome of the technical discussions was resolution WHA43.19 which inter alia a) calls on Member States "to undertake essential health research appropriate to national needs ... and strengthen national research capabilities ...", b) urges bilateral and multilateral development agencies, non-governmental organizations, foundations, regional organizations "to increase support for essential health research", c) invites the research community "to increase its commitment towards the development of essential health research ...", d) requests the Director-General "to use appropriate mechanisms in close collaboration with the global and regional ACHR, (i) to assess new and emerging areas of science and technology, investigate evolving problems of critical significance to health, (ii) identify appropriate methodologies for trend assessment and forecasting including epidemiology to improve health, iii) to develop further a clearly enunciated health research strategy for WHO in order to translate research goals, priorities and programmes into coherent and coordinated action in support of health for all ...".

Recent Trends

In addressing the task in d (iii) above, the ACHR drew on the work of its own Task Forces and Sub committees namely, the Task Force on Science and Technology, the Task Force on Health Development Research, the Task Force on Evolving Problems of Critical Significance to Health, the Sub committee on Health and the Economy and the Sub committee on Research Capability Strengthening. The ACHR considered that although the Health Research Strategy proposed in 1988 is a valid cornerstone of WHO's research strategy, new dimensions should be added to give proper emphasis to infrastructural, economic, environmental and behavioural aspects. The revised strategy focused on the relevance of economic environment to health; global problems and global solutions; health research and human development; science and technology policies; the emergence of new ethical issues; and research capability strengthening in developing countries. It further emphasized the context in which health research is to be developed:

a world in transition; the changing scene of science and technology; and the importance of identifying research needs on the basis of health needs. Research capability strengthening at country level is badly needed, and international cooperation in the field of research must be further developed especially in the context of limited resources, that makes it necessary to carefully define health research priorities. A resume of the report has been published in World Health Bulletin, 1994, 72(4): 533538.

In June 1994, the ACHR, in collaboration with CIOMS, organized a colloquium in Charlottesville, USA, on "The Impact of Advances in Science and Technology on Future Health". The objectives of the colloquium were: to review the new developments in science that could have significant impact on health and the attainment of national and global health goals and programmes; and to identify trends, potentials for applications of the advances in research, and thus contribute to the updating of the WHO research strategy. The proceedings of this colloquium were published in 1995.

Current Plans

A major on-going activity of the ACHR is the development, in cooperation with regional ACHRs, of a "Research Agenda to support the Renewed Health for All Strategy of WHO" aimed at the improvement of health conditions and health services. This "Research Agenda" is to be presented at the World Health Assembly in 1998.

The new research policy and agenda will build on previous ACHR efforts. Of special relevance to the new global efforts are 2 documents:"Research for Health: Principles, Perspectives and Strategies" published in 1993 and "The Impact of Scientific Advances on Future Health" prepared and published in collaboration with CIOMS in 1995. In addition, the ACHR system will be utilizing modern communication technology to establish a, planning network, with a view to building up a consensus on scientific and technological priorities. The principal areas of concern are: a) health conditions of the individual; b) health care systems; c) environment and health; d) social behaviour; and e) nutrition.

The research agenda will also deal with improving linkages between academic and research institutions in different parts of the world, stressing a new commitment of the "science and technology of the North" towards problems in the "South". It should also facilitate communication of research findings much more directly from research institutions to decision makers. Therefore, the ACHR will do its best to sensitize the key science and technology organizations to global health issues, including the Academies of Sciences, the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS), the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), University Associations, etc.

Appendix

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Research for health: principles, perspectives and strategies, WHO/RPD/ACHR/HRS/93, 1993.

Societal systems, technology and health, E.O. Attinger, 1988, WHO/RPD/TEK/88.

Health research strategy, Report of a Sub committee of the Advisory Committee on Health Research, 1986, WHO/RPD/ACHR(HRS)/86.

Enhancement of transfer of technology to developing countries with special reference to health, Report of a Subcommittee of the ACHR, 1987, WHO/RPD/ ACHR(TT)/87.

The impact of scientific advances on future health - A WHO- CIOMS colloquium, Charlottesville, Virginia, 20-24 June 1994, 1995, WHO / RPS / ACHR-CIOMS / 95.

Research strategies for health, based on the Technical Discussions at the 43rd World Health Assembly on the "Role of health research in the strategy for health for all by the year 2000", edited by A.M. Davies and B.P. Mansourian, Hogrefe & Huber Publishers, Lewiston, NY, 1992 (ISBN 0-88937-083-4, ISBN 3-45682162-X).

Health technology transfer: Whose responsibility? - XXIIlrd CIOMS Round Table Conference, Geneva, Switzerland, 2-3 November 1989, CIOMS, 1990.

The use of videotex networks for health system support: the example of Sao Paulo, Brazil, llana Fogelman and Eduardo O.C. Chaves, August 1988.

Research Methods for Health Development, RPD/SOC/85.

Mapping health indicators, WHO/RPD/MAP/87.

Reports of ACHR meetings (since 1959).

Reports of all ACHR Subcommittees and Task Forces

Energy and Wastes: From Plutonium to Carbon Dioxide

W.S. Fyfe, President International Union of Geological Sciences (lugs)

Introduction

The growth of population and the local quality of life are related to many of our modern technologies. However, there is no question that the availability of low cost energy is a dominant component of our life support system. If one examines energy use and development, the numbers speak for themselves (e.g. energy per capita, kg oil equivalent units, Ethiopia 21, Pakistan 223, Mexico 1525, Germany 4358, see Kursten, 1996).

At the present time, fossil carbon fuels (coal-oil-gas) dominate our energy systems but, of these, only coal has reliable reserves exceeding two hundred years. Nuclear energy accounts for about 7% of world energy but, in Europe, nuclear energy produces 35% of electricity (in France, 77%). As recently stated by Capus and Rongeau (1996), "despite the attempts of a few opponents to demonstrate its uselessness, nuclear power should remain as a major component of the energy mix, as is suggested by all the major studies conducted on the subject."

When one examines the needs for energy of the next century with a population of 10-12 billion humans, the options are clear. While many nations waste energy, most of the future inhabitants will need much more. There is no doubt that coal will be a major fuel for decades to come; many nations see the need for increased nuclear technology for decades to come. The potential for hydro-power in a world with critical water resource problems (see Postal, 1992) is very limited, and hydropower is not benign. It is almost certain that coal, and nuclear systems will bridge the gap to the ultimate sustainable resources from the Sun and the deep Earth (geothermal energy).

With nuclear technologies there are many concerns; but the problem of managing nuclear wastes is with us now and will not go away. As was recently stressed by Pease and Roberts (1996), there is enough plutonium on the Earth's surface today to make more than 200 thousand nuclear bombs! In the next decades the world will spend 10's of billions of dollars on nuclear waste isolation (or transmutation) and it is one problem where we cannot afford mistakes.

However, as far as coal technology is concerned, coal use will certainly expand for the next decades, and there are problems of even greater magnitude. While attention tends to be focused on greenhouse carbon dioxide, there are a host of other problems, including acid rain, metal pollution, ash disposal and, as some coals are rich in halogens (F-CI-Br-I), even ozone-destroying C-halogen compounds. The huge mining operations, which move 510 km^3 of materials per year, can cause massive problems with ground water pollution.

Scientists and technologists must face the ultimate question of how to develop environmentally acceptable, economically viable, energy resources for 10 billion humans living well.

Nuclear Waste Management - Isolation

It is generally agreed that the nuclear wastes produced from the common types of reactors must be isolated from the biosphere for minimal times in the range of 10^4 - 10^6 years, and the longer the better. And it is agreed that isolation must be in repositories deep in the crust.

In 1978, ICSU formed a small group to consider the nuclear waste problems of that time (see Fyfe et al, 1984); Harrison, 1984). In 1993, another group from the lugs, IUPAC, with members from Sweden, France, Holland, Germany, U.S.A., Japan, Russia, Canada and UNESCO, was formed, to review more recent developments. In 1997, at the annual meeting of the European Union of Geological Sciences, in Strasbourg, the group will convene a special symposium on the problem.

What are the major issues? At a recent meeting in Paris, with the French programme, (Agence nationale pour la gestion des d'echets radioactifs, ANDRA) convened by Dr. Andre-Jehan, the head of their International Affairs office, Dr. Pierre Barber, confirmed the feeling of the ICSU group that nuclear waste disposal is an international problem, not a national one. Who knows who will live where in 10,000 years time? There is also general agreement that we cannot afford a mistake - we must strive to find the best solutions.

In terms of waste management, the "million year concept" is new. It should not be, since wastes like lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic do not decay with time.

Is it possible to isolate delicate, dangerous materials for millions of years? The answer is positive, Nature has shown us how to do it, and where. The use of natural analogues is the key to gaining public acceptance for any isolation concept. As examples, we have oil and gas preserved in rocks for 10's of millions of years; we have salt deposits over 100 millions years old. We have potential container materials (e.g. copper) which have remained virtually uncorroded for a billion years.

The questions our group faces include the following:

- Where is the best place, and

- What is the influence of climate fluctuations?

- What is the influence of topography?

- How important are "geophysical" parameters like heat flow?

- Is the sea bed an option?

- Is the nuclear material itself a potential resource: should we consider retrievable storage?

- Is transmutation of long-lived dangerous radio-nuclides possible?

- What is the influence of the deep biosphere microorganisms at over 4 km depth?

- What are the best packaging and mining technologies - for this is not mining - it is antimining (putting away - not taking out)?

Nuclear waste isolation is possible, but the search for the "best place" is not simple (e.g. the Yucca Mountain fiasco, fig. 1). While there may be ideal places in the sea bed, the problem is the control of such sites. At least on land, we and our descendants must live with it!

Figure: 1

The scene at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, USA, a proposed nuclear waste disposal site where billions of dollars have been spent. The dark hills are very young volcanoes (10,000 years old). As stated by Holland and Petersen (1995) "if a volcanic vent were to cut directly through the repository... the consequences could be disastrous. Although the probability of such an event is very small, it is not zero".

Given electricity from solar and nuclear sources, we do not need to kill our cities with combustion gas and smog. The electric vehicle is possible and, as we read and see every day, the state of the atmosphere of the mega-cities is becoming intolerable.

Coal will be used for decades into the future to produce the needed electricity. Can we dispose of the gases, (CO2', NOx', SOx', C-halogens) underground? There is growing world interest in the disposal of such gases in subterranean environments. Very soon, the American Chemical Society will hold a major symposium on CO2 disposal. The carbon cycle in nature is ultimately dominated by reactions which fix CO2 by reactions with Ca-Mg-Fe silicates. There is hope!

Conclusion

Given the increase in human population and the rising expectations of the quality of life, there will be, must be, vast development of Earth resources of all types, if there is to be a prospect of hope for all people. We must integrate knowledge from the Earth Sciences into all technological planning over the next decades, to avoid environmental and economic disasters. In many cases of the use of resources, we require new and improved technologies, with reduced environmental impact. We need new teams, since most of the critical world problems (energy, food, water, waste management) require a very broad range of integrated expertise.

Planet Earth is not fragile. We have had life here for about 4 billion years, and we have never boiled or totally frozen. This planet has remarkable buffer systems. In general, life has survived fluctuations and

catastrophic events of many types. We have had prolific microorganisms, and we now know that the biosphere may extend to depths of several kilometers, which may partly explain its survival. Nevertheless, the species Homo sapiens is fragile. We have developed incredible systems for our life support, but many of those in present use are not sustainable, and some have the potential to destroy our species and many others.

We need new systems, new technologies, to use our energy, water, soil, mineral, resources with greater wisdom. We must learn to reduce, use, and manage our waste products with greater care.

References

Capus, G., & Rongeau, J.P. 1996. The role of nuclear power today and in the future, (in Kursten), 1996, 109-120.

Freeze, R.A. & Cherry, J.A. 1979. Groundwater, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 604 pp.

Fyfe, W.S., Babuska, V., Price, N.J.,Schmid, E., Tsang, C.F., Uyeda, S. & Velde, B. 1984. The geology of nuclear waste disposal. Nature, 310, 537-540.

Harrison, J.M. 1984. Disposal of radioactive wastes, Science, 226, 11-14.

Holland, H.D., & Petersen, U. 1995. Living Dangerously, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 490 pp.

Kursten, M. (Editor) 1996. World Energy, a Changing Scene,

E. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchandlung, Stuttgart, 227 pp.

Pease, S., & Roberts, L., 1996. Bombs to Kilowatts: The

plutonium problem. Science and Public Affairs, The Royal Society London, Spring, 1996, 29-32.

Postal, S., 1992. Last oasis - facing water scarcity. W.W. Norton and co., New York, 230 pp.

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems

Vladislav Kotchetkov
Member of the EOLSS Configuration Control Board

This is one of the most exiting scientific projects so far with regards to its ambitions, scientific potential involved and the expected results. The Encyclopedia is supposed to be one of the largest sources of human knowledge ever to be compiled. Dr. Darwish Al Gobaisi, the Editor-in -Chief of the encyclopedia, outlines its objectives in the following way: "The Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems- EOLSS -will represent a comprehensive, authentic, authoritative, organized and integrated body of knowledge of the science, technology and management of life support systems development and use. It is a future-oriented document designed to have a major impact upon professional practice and education and to heighten social awareness of critical life support issues. The EOLSS... will be broadly useful in humanistic endeavors that result in the development of remedial measures for issues that have a potentially destabilizing effect on the global environment"

The encyclopedia project started two years ago with its focus on water desalination. However, it soon became obvious that the encyclopedia of water desalination, however important it was, had to be addressed to a narrow audience and, therefore, provided a limited impact on the solution of the urgent problems confronting the humanity. These considerations led to the substantial enlargement of the scope of the encyclopedia with the inclusion of water, energy, environment, and global food security problems. All the mentioned issues were structured within the context of global change and sustainable development. Science and technology policies for development of life support systems, with their economic, human, social and cultural implications also had due coverage in the EOLSS.

The encyclopedia is organized in six major areas. The systems of Water, Energy, Environment, and Food and Agriculture comprise the four major components of the total Earth system concerned with the support of the life. They will cover all important aspects of resources, demand, conservation, policies and technologies, demographic impact, interplay, as well as metrics and indices. The fifth major area covers Common Science and Technology which cut across the four natural resources areas. The mathematical, physical, chemical and biological sciences which are generally applicable to the life support systems, as well as such applied fields as mathematical modeling, artificial intelligence, information and communications technologies, mechanical engineering and others are represented in this important area of the EOLSS. The most complex one is the sixth major area dealing with Global Issues. It will analyze the world as an integrated multi-level system and describe the comprehensive problem of global change with its demographic, environmental, climatic, biological, technological, economic and social components. This part of the encyclopedia will also deal with the global health issue, including that of emerging and re-emerging diseases, which, according to some predictions, might soon be one of the flash points of human existence in the next century. The international security, in its global sense, which arises from the interaction and interplay between elements of basic natural and human-engineered resource systems, like global environment security, energy security, food and fresh water supply security, are to be discussed in this part of the EOLSS. Education for sustainable development for the XXI century, as well as the ethics of science, is another important theme which will appear in this part. Systems analysis and system engineering methods will be applied for the analysis of interaction and interplay between four major natural systems.

The organization of the subject matter in each area of the EOLSS is to be thematic, with each theme being divided into several topics and each topic comprising a number of articles, so the user is guided logically through the body of knowledge to levels of increasing depth and diversity. The information in all six major areas of the Encyclopedia will be considered from a historical perspective, extending from the origin to the current state of understanding. The existing trends, foresight and prospective will also be included in order to satisfy diverse interests of the encyclopedia users. The EOLSS is designed to the following major target audiences: university students in the four resource areas and those receiving their education in other areas but who intend to work jointly with the professionals in life support areas. Senior academics interested in the subject areas covered and in their interaction and interplay. Practitioners associated with the major resource areas covered by the EOLSS or those who provide technical support in the acquisition of life support systems. Researchers who wish to acquire knowledge in the related fields. Managers at all levels, policy makers and parliamentaries who need to obtain overview knowledge of the principles, practices and perspectives in the encyclopedia's subjects. And last but not least, the self-educating persons concerned with the preservation and improvement of the life on the Earth. The idea of the Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems is gathering the support of an unprecedented number of renowned scientists world-wide. Among the members of its Board of International Advisers are the Nobel Laureates N. Basov, G. Charpak, P. Crutzen, R.Ernst, K. Fukui, L. Klein, J. Lederberg, L. Lederman, Yuan T. Lee, J.M. Lehn, 1. Prigogin, B. Richter, Chen Ning Yang, senior officials from UNESCO, WMO, WHO, World Bank, ICSU, IUCN, IIASA, TWAS, WIS - L. Albou, A. Badran, J.C.I. Dooge, S. Golytsyn, H. Grassl, D. McDowell, P. Mansourian, I. Sergeldin, from the national academies of sciences - F. Gros, Yu. Osipov, G. Marchuk, Dai Ruwei and many outstanding scientists such as, for example, R. Chandler, Lin Qun, J. Lions, M.S. Swaminatan, T. Ohta, M. Tolba and many others.

More than 2.000 experts from developed and developing countries have formulated their proposals for the encyclopedia. The important scientific teams in the USA, Russia, China, Japan and Europe were involved in the development of the independent proposals for the overall list of contents of the EOLSS. Such parallel efforts have ensured the inclusion of a variety of approaches to global problems which characterize the various schools of thoughts. A workshop attended by 130 members of the International Editorial Council of the EOLSS was held in Washington, DC, during 26-28 January 1996 to unify the proposals for the EOLSS body of knowledge received from the expert groups and individuals. The integrated list of contents was then reviewed at the national workshops organized in Russia, China and Japan, as well as by the scientists from France and Mexico during March 1996. The final discussion of the list of contents of the EOLSS was the focus of the Bahamas workshop that took place from 28 April to 4 May 1996 with the participation of nearly 400 eminent experts from every corner of the world. The discussions were organized in twelve parallel working groups, two groups for each of six areas, as well as in joint sessions and in the plenary meetings. This process established a basis for the definition of the integrated, penultimate, and eventually the final list of contents of the Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems.

The Configuration Control Board (CCB) - the major managerial body of EOLSS -was responsible for the organization of the described process of the development of the list of contents of the EOLSS. The further major concern of CCB is to organize the invitation of the authors and to ensure the highest scientific standards of excellence of the prepared materials. Another important and more difficult task is to ensure the cultural diversity of approaches to the discussed problems and to transcend the constraints of the rationalistic and anthropocentric basis of the 'rich countries-oriented' culture. We should never forget the words of Denis Goulet, development philosopher, who wrote: "It is discomforting for a sophisticated technical expert from a rich country to learn that men who live on the margin of subsistence and daily flirt with death and insecurity are sometimes capable of greater happiness, wisdom, and human communion than he is, notwithstanding his knowledge, wealth, and technical superiority"

The EOLSS Publishers Company Ltd, that was established in the historic town of Kingston upon Thames in south-west London in January 1996, is planning to produce the encyclopedia both in the form of bound volumes, of which there will be approximately sixty, and in CD-ROM format. The possibility of making the EOLSS accessible as a virtual encyclopedia through the Internet is also under consideration. The first volumes of the EOLSS are expected to be published by the end 1997. In addition to the publication of the encyclopedia, EOLSS Publishers plan to issue other material, both books and journals, related to the areas covered by the encyclopedia, together with annual updates of the EOLSS itself.

A Comprehensive Freshwater Assessment

Gunilia Bjorklund,
Executive Secretary, CFWA, Stockholm Environment Institute

In the UNCED process, including at the Dublin conference, the global concern over freshwater was expressed and was manifested in the Dublin statement. The most extensive chapter of Agenda 21, agreed at UNCED in Rio 1992, is the freshwater chapter, Chapter 18. There are links to water issues in other chapters of Agenda 21 as well, for instance in Chapter 17, the chapter on Oceans, all kinds of seas, and coastal areas. And there exist cross references in the Land Chapters even though water and land are not integrated the way we would like to see them.

The UN Commission for Sustainable Development, CSD, is designated to follow up progress in implementing the Rio decisions as decided by the General Assembly. This is done periodically for chapters dealing with Social and Economic Dimensions and those dealing with Conservation and Management of Resources for Development. Chapter 18, the "Freshwater Chapter", was one of those on the CSD-agenda at the 1994 session for reviewing, together with the Chapters on Human Health and on Human Settlement Development

The need for a holistic and more comprehensive approach in dealing with water resources and water problems made the CSD then, based on results at the Noordwijk Conference on Drinking Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation a ministerial conference that also served as a preparatory process for the second session of CSD, 1994, call for "a comprehensive assessment of freshwater resources, with the aim of identifying the availability of such resources, making projections of future needs, and identifying problems to be considered by the special session of the General Assembly in 1997." The CSD urged UNEP, FAO, UNIDO, WHO, WMO, UNESCO, UNDP, the World Bank and other relevant UN bodies, as well as NGOs, to strengthen their efforts in this endeavour. The CSD also invited Governments to co-operate actively with inputs to the process, specifically identifying the Government of Sweden. The Stockholm Environment Institute was commissioned by the Swedish Government to actively work in the project. A Steering Committee for the project was formed, consisting of relevant UN-organisations, cochaired by the Secretary of the UN ACC Subcommittee on Water Resources and the Director of SEl. The Secretary of the Steering Committee is the Executive Secretary of the SEI Comprehensive Freshwater Assessment programme.

The ongoing work consists of different parts. It will be presented in a main report, accompanied by supporting documents, including special studies, giving the detailed background information. The main report will consist of four different parts:

- a statement explaining the urgent need for such an assessment;

- a description of the availability, quality and variability of freshwater resources of the world, as well as their use. The description will deal with surface water as well as ground water. It will elucidate the issue of driving forces, as well as existing problem cluster areas;

- an investigation of current and future water needs that must be faced at the river basin level, be it local, national or international;

- strategies and options for the concerted sustainable development of freshwater resources of the world.

The work within the Assessment has proceeded according to estimated schedule. An extensive background document, that will serve as a rationale and also give the background to the assessment has been prepared and will be edited to be published.

Part 1 of the main report is a shared responsibility between SEI and the UN and it is now in preparation. It exists in draft form. It will give the background and the rationale, "set the scene", for the rest of the assessment and also indicate where new strategies will be needed.

Part 2, where the UN-agencies have the main responsibility with WMO and UNESCO as task managers, is almost finalised. An expert group consisting of the agency representatives and key international scientists and research organisations has met twice. The experts, including the UN-experts, have provided existing data and background material on water availability and use, for the agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors, surface water as well as ground water, and water quality including health aspects. Time constraints makes it necessary to use existing data even though data are not always of good quality or may even be lacking. This is particularly true when it comes to water quality data. The material is compiled into an extensive background document that is now being edited. Based on this extensive background material a draft of the chapter for the final report now exists in a final draft.

Part 3 to a certain extent takes its point of departure in part 2 as this part will deal with the future, indicated by scenarios. It is, however important to mention that neither chapter 2 nor chapter 3 will give detailed data, country by country for all countries in the world but merely regional-wise.

Within the work on part 3, where SEI is the task manager, a workshop has been held. At the workshop experts from the UN- system, in their personal capacity, as well as independent experts, discussed water futures and different scenarios from regional and sectoral perspectives. The outcome of this workshop together with scenario applications will form the basis for the chapter and the background report to go with it. The background report exists in a first draft. The chapter to be in the final report exists in an outline and is now in preparation.

Parts 2 and 3 will form the basis for part 4, which will be an important part of the report, from the political point of view the most important part. Discussions on structure and outline of that part have started and a workshop at which different policy options, existing as well as future, were discussed by UNagency representatives and eminent experts from different parts of the world, took place 18-19 May. A draft of the chapter, that needs to build on chapters 1-3, the outcome of the workshop, and other documentation of the project including commissioned papers, will be prepared during the summer.

All foreseen commissioned, special topic, papers are well under way, though at different stages. A paper on "International Freshwater Resources: From Conflicts to Co- operation" exists in a first draft, has been discussed during a seminar this spring and is now under revision based on comments at the seminar and other comments. The same goes for a paper on "Water and Gender". Other papers, such as one on "Water and Economics" and one on "Urban Water Resources Management" exist in outline and will, when ready in a more complete form, be presented at seminars later this year.

So far information sessions at governmental level have been held at the UN Desertification

Convention negotiations, at the WMO/IDB Latin American Water Assessment conference, and during luncheon meetings at the CSD. A presentation was also made during the Water Dialogue at Habitat II in Istanbul in June. The Assessment was also on the agenda at the last GEF/STAP meeting in June as Global Freshwater issues are important in the GEF Focal Area "International Waters". A process for an intergovernmental review is currently discussed but no decision taken as yet. The Assessment was also discussed by the Committee of Natural Resources, according to the CSD recommendation. Further scientifical reviews will be performed by the ICSU/SCOWAR, the World Water Council, the Technical Advisory Committee for the Global Water Partnership, and other fora. A special Working Group at the Stockholm Water Symposium is also devoted to the issues. This "participatory process" is an important part of the Assessment process.

Executive Secretary, CFWA Stockholm Environment Institute Box 2142 S-103 14 Stockholm, SWEDEN Te1:+46-8-24 84 41
Fax: +46-8-723 03 48, E-mail:gbjorklundEnn.apc.org

The Star of Tolerance - an object lesson for astronomy

D. McNally, Chairman ICSU Working Group on Adverse Environmental Impacts on Astronomy, University of London Observatory

The "Star of Tolerance" is a an object lesson in how the science of astronomy could be adversely affected by an apparently unrelated activity. Astronomy, unlike other sciences, cannot restrict access to its laboratory - we observe through the Earth's atmosphere which we share with the whole of mankind and, our Space Borne Observatories share outer space with other satellites and an increasing amount of space debris. The activities of others, especially in respect of the local production of strong electromagnetic radiation (e.g. light, radio transmissions), can have considerable adverse impact on our observations.

The "Star of Tolerance" was proposed as a way of celebrating the 50th birthday of UNESCO. UNESCO has achieved much in its half century and its achievements should be a source of considerable pride. The "Star of Tolerance" was to be a pair of balloons, one of 50 m diameter and the other of 30 km diameter made of reflecting material, kept together by a 2 km tether. On launch the "Star" would attain an orbital height of 1250 km and was expected to be about as bright as the star Sirius. It would have the appearance of a double star as observed in the twilight sky. It also had the capability to transmit messages at radio wavelengths and have the capability to initiate terrestrial events such as turning on floodlighting of buildings, etc. After a projected four year lifetime, it would be deorbited and burn up in the Earth's atmosphere. This was a very striking, highly visible and imaginative way to mark the achievements of UNESCO it must be admitted. Fortunately, for astronomy, UNESCO decided not to proceed with this project.

Why fortunately for astronomy? The "Star" of itself would not have been a disaster for astronomy. Clearly to have an object as bright as Sirius possibly at times as bright as Jupiter - crossing the sky at regular intervals, and not always in the twilight, would be an irritating hazard for astronomy. It would impose a series of changing no-go areas of sky. An accidental crossing of a sensitive detector by such a bright object could, in principle, do serious and costly damage to the detector. In orbit at a height of 1250 km, the lifetime of the "Star" would have been over 1000 years. It is accepted that tethers are particularly sensitive to damage from space debris. Were the tether to be broken at least some parts of the "Star" would not be capable of deorbiting and remain a hazard for astronomy for in excess of 1000 years. Damage to the "Star" by collision with space debris could result in the production of many reflecting fragments which would become a long term unpredictable hazard to astronomical observation, again for in excess of 1000 years. There is also reasonable doubt that the deorbiting of a system which contained a tether would be successful. These very real concerns might be considered as acceptable hazard for a one off situation. However, the real objection to the proposal was the precedent it would set. If UNESCO launched the "Star of Tolerance", the launch of bigger, and so brighter, solar reflectors designed to promote less laudible causes would be seen to have received the seal of approval from the world's premier cultural, scientific and educational institution. Solar reflectors would be launched in quantity, advertising from space would be a fact. That would be disastrous for astronomy at all wavelengths. For optical astronomy reflected sunlight from the advertising satellites would brighten the sky to at least several times that produced by the Full Moon - the Moon brightens the sky to such an extent that deep sky astronomy (e.g. cosmologically relevant observations) cannot be undertaken for two weeks (centered on Full Moon) during each lunation (approximately four weeks). Development of space advertising would surely lead to an increasingly bright night sky which could well compromise any attempt to undertake observations at optical wavelengths. For radio astronomy, radio transmissions from such reflecting satellites would be yet another contribution to electromagnetic noise - already a serious problem. That UNESCO could consider such a plan, full of disastrous consequences for astronomy, was a horrendous realisation for astronomers. UNESCO, had, in the recent past, materially assisted the IAU in its endeavours to make known the deleterious consequences for astronomy of many of our current practices of daily life: in plain terms, - the demands of "civilisation" conflict with the requirements of good conditions for astronomical observation. Yet UNESCO itself was seriously considering a proposal which would have led to serious damage to astronomical science. Fortunately UNESCO did not proceed - a very courageous decision warmly received by the astronomical community.

Figure 1

Satellite trails

Figure 2

Satellite trails near the image of galaxy

Astronomy must exercise great vigilance to become aware of these threats. In many cases the threat is only perceived after the event, as with outdoor lighting schemes - an observatory may not find out about, a new outdoor lighting scheme if the local planners do not see the possible effect on the observatory. There is a need for sustained public relations exercises to reinforce how exposed the science of astronomy is to unintentioned interference - even by our best of friends. We escaped this time. We had inspired advocates. But astronomy needs more than good luck and the quick reaction of inspired advocates. If the ,"Star of Tolerance" teaches us anything, it emphasises that the science of astronomy must quickly put in place a permanent mechanism to identify, and react to, any activity which leads to degradation of the opportunities to observe the cosmos.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT

News from COSTED-IBN

Veena Ravichandran, Senior Scientific Officer, COSTED-IBN, Madras

COSTED-LINKS Programme Launched

A new programme called the COSTED-Links has been launched in the Asian region. The programme aims at fostering links between COSTED and R & D institutions in the public and private corporate sectors in the developing Asian countries. The programme owes its uniqueness to the fact that this is the first deliberate attempt by COSTED to take advantage of the enormous scientific and technical expertise resident in the corporate sectors. At the same time, the corporate sectors will derive advantage from the information base available within COSTED pertaining to S & T activities and programmes around the world and in particular the developing countries. COSTED aims to serve as a clearing house with regard to the science and technology information needs of developing countries.

Having developed considerable experience over the past several years in a variety of activities relating to promotion of science and technology including S & T education, it is only appropriate that the new COSTED activities pertain to the emerging global scenario. Given the liberalisation of national economies in a number of developing countries it is necessary that economic growth be linked to innovative applications of science through technology. The time is therefore ripe to associate the public and private sector R & D agencies in the various COSTED fora. This view has been enthusiastically endorsed by the COSTED Executive Committee at its last meeting in August 1995 held in Mexico city. This programme is a follow-up of the recommendations of the committee.

The COSTED-Links programme is essentially an exercise of understanding and assessment of mutual strengths and capabilities of the scientific communities and the industrial sectors and identification of areas for cooperation. In its present form, it covers the Asian region and is expected to serve as a model for the other COSTED regional secretariats for similar initiatives in their respective regions. There has been a very enthusiastic response to the programme and date more than 25 private and public sector agencies have enrolled as COSTED- Links members. A nominal membership fee of Rs.10,000 per annum (approximately $300) entitles the members to a concessional price for COSTED publications, access to information on COSTED activities and the ICSU family, an invitation to COSTED events of contemporary and emerging importance as well as use of the Library of International Scientific Information at the COSTED-IBN Madras Secretariat, which will shortly be inaugurated. The library is expected to provide special information services for the Links members on request. In addition, members are also entitled to use other facilities at the COSTEDIBN Madras Secretariat, such as the conference hall and the conference room for holding national, regional and international events of academic interest. A quarterly information bulletin is being published to disseminate information on the activities of the Links programme. Periodic meetings of all the members are envisaged to evaluate the programme from time to time.

COSTED-INCASR Fellowship Programme

Another new initiative by the Central COSTED Secretariat, the COSTED-Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR) Fellowship Programme was launched in April this year. The programme upholds the ICSU philosophy of encouraging the development and sharing of the benefits of science across geographic borders. The fellowship aims to foster free mobility and exchange of scientists In developing countries and to promote South South cooperation. The JNCASR, operating under the direction of Prof. C.N.R.Rao, FRS, is a centre of excellence, located in Bangalore, India and essentially works through close partnership with several reputed scientific institutions in the country. The generous offer by JNCASR in hosting the programme has been instrumental in operationalising this initiative.

Under this programme, up to 10 fellowships are offered per annum to young and active scientists below 45 years to work up to 3 months at the JNCASR in Bangalore, India, in selected areas in the physical, chemical and biological sciences. The programme is open to scientists, researchers and teachers from the developing countries in the Asian, African, Arab and Latin American regions (except India). The fellowship covers lodging and boarding expenses in addition to a few travel grants for exceptionally meritorious candidates. The programme is already evoking enthusiastic response from developing countries the world over. Further details and application procedure for this programme are available on request from the Scientific Secretary, COSTED-IBN International Secretariat, 24 Gandhi Mandap Road, Madras 600 025, India; Fax No. 91-44-4914543/ 4911589/944444; E-mail: costed@sirnetm.ernet.in

Cooperation with UNESCO

A contract was established with UNESCO for the provision of travel grants to young scientists from the South and Central Asian region. This will enable them to take part in scientific meetings and workshops and to undertake short visits for specific research work.

In addition, financial support has been provided by UNESCO for the publication of the quarterly newsletter COSTED News which is devoted to encouraging and promoting active cooperation in the development of science and technology among institutions in the neighbouring countries. UNESCO is also supporting a few specific activities in biosciences organised by the regional COSTED-IBN Secretariats this year.

New National members for COSTED-IBN

Following a renewed attempt at enrolling new National Members, Brazil has joined the membership of COSTED-IBN. Brazil has set an outstanding record as the highest contributor of national membership dues so far. Further additions to the membership are expected.

PUBLICATIONS NEWS

History of ICSU

Frank Greenaway

This book, Science International, is the first history of a worldwide organisation of scientists, now involving thousands of participants, which was started a century ago when a few visionaries rounded the international Association of Academies (1899-1919). This was succeeded by an International Research Council (1919-1932), which, in 1932, became the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). The initiative to have an international arena for scientists survived two global wars, as well as immense political, economic, and social change in the 20th century. This history describes how national scientific academies as well as International Unions of scientists from specific disciplines learned to work together. From these alliances sprang great cooperative projects such as the International Geophysical Year and the International Biological Programme. Today ICSU is a global scientific organisation directed to the study of the entire planet and prospects for the human race.

This detailed account will appeal to researchers in the history of science who are interested in the organisational aspects of science in the 20th century, and to professional scientists working in the service of science on a national or international level. This publication is expected to be available by the end of September and the retail price will be approximately œ40 or US $60.

1995 Annual Report of ICSU

This yearly publication consists of a brief annual report of ICSU's central activities, the report of the 1995 meeting of the General Committee, the 1995 Financial Statements and brief reports from Union Members, Interdisciplinary Bodies, and Scientific Associates, on activities which took place during the year. The book is distributed free-of-charge to the members of the ICSU family. Copies may be obtained from the ICSU Secretariat in Paris.

NEWS IN BRIEF

Summary of the Ninth Meeting of the OECD Megascience Forum

Stefan Michalowski, OECD

The OECD Megascience Forum held its ninth meeting on June 27 and 28 in Paris. This was the second meeting under the new mandate that was approved by the OECD Science Ministers in the Fall of 1995. The Ministers authorised the Forum to establish working groups to address specific problems and issues in international megascience cooperation. At the ninth Forum meeting, representatives of twenty-six Member countries, the European Commission, and two Observer nations, reviewed the progress of the existing working groups, and decided to further broaden the scope of the Forum's activity.

The Forum's Working Group on Neutron Sources, which is lead by the United Kingdom, reported on the results of its first meeting and the establishment of technical panels that will consider opportunities for international cooperation in three key areas:

(1) upgrading and refurbishing of existing neutron sources;

(2) R&D for a new generation of high-intensity sources; and

(3) neutron scattering instrumentation.

The U.S.-lead Working Group on Large-Scale Biological Information Systems informed the delegates that it has formed subgroups to enhance international coordination in two fields: biodiversity and neuroscience. In addition, a subgroup (lead by France) is focusing on ethical and intellectual property issues in bioinformatics.

Delegates also considered the next steps for the Forum's studies of two vital problems in international scientific co- operation: access by scientists to megascience facilities, and administrative/legislative barriers that impede collaborative projects. Agreement was reached on the types of data to be collected for the studies, the methodology for the data analysis, and the timeline for generating policy recommendations to Forum member governments.

Three new Forum activities were approved:

(1) a working group, lead by France, that will provide avenue for an inter-governmental discussion of international co- operation in the field of Nuclear Physics;

(2) a workshop, which will be organised by Greece and Italy, on on a deep-sea neutrino observatory, and

(3) a Japanese-sponsored workshop on the international aspects of basic research aimed at understanding and solving the interconnected ensemble of global-scale issues such as population growth, food production, energy generation, natural resource management and environmental protection.

The Tenth Meeting of the Megascience Forum will be held in Paris on January 30/31, 1997. Additional information can be obtained from the OECD Secretariat at (33 1) 45 24 96 99, email: msforum@oecd.org. The Forum maintains a WWW site at www.oecd.org/dsti/mega.

The Latin American Workshop on Education in Global Change

Joseph P. Stoltman, Western Michigan University Department of Geography, Kalamazoo, USA
Ruben Lara Lara, InterAmerican Institute for Global Change Research, Ensenada, Mexico

Introduction

The workshop on Education in Global Change was an extension the Project on Education in Global Change initiated by the Committee on the Teaching of Science (CTS) in 1989. The CTS Project resulted in the preparation and publishing of student learning activities in science education entitled "Science for Understanding Tomorrow's World: Global Change" in which the research results of global change scientists were used as the basis for developing lessons for upper secondary and beginning university students. The English version was published in 1994. The initial plans for the Project on Education in Global Change by CTS included editions for use in Asia and in Latin America. The Asian edition of Global Change was prepared at a Workshop in Madras, India, in 1993 working from pre-publication draft materials. The Asian edition of Global Change, revised to fit the context of Global Change in South and Southeast Asia was completed in 1995. Upon completion of the Asian Edition of Global Change (published in English), work was begun on the Latin American edition. The following steps were taken in preparation for a workshop in Latin America.

1. Report on the Global Change Project at the Forum of the Committee on Science and Technology in Developing Countries (COSTED) during the General Assembly of ICSU in Santiago, Chile, in 1993.

2. A site visit to the Universidad de Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina, to meet with the faculty of the Department of Geography to ascertain their interest in hosting a Workshop on Education in Global Change.

3. Translation of the original English version into Spanish, completed in September, 1995.

4. Planning and securing funding for the workshop on Education in Global Change was begun in early 1995.

5. The Department of Geography, Faculty of Philosophy, Universidad de Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina was selected as the site for the workshop.

Objectives of the Workshop

The Workshop had three main objectives. They were:

1. To review and validate the Spanish translation of Global Change: Science for Understanding Tomorrow's World.

2. To update and insert examples of global change research from Latin America with a science education application.

3. To develop and implement a plan for the printing and dissemination of Global Change: Science for Understanding Tomorrow's World (Spanish edition) in Spanish speaking countries of the world.

Participant Selection to the Workshop

Participants were nominated from each of the countries in the geographic region of Latin America. There were 64 registered participants at the Workshop, of which 47 attended full-time. Twenty-nine were from countries other than Argentina, and the remainder from Argentina. Twenty-two registrants were from the Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, the hosting institution for the Workshop.

Twenty-nine participants to the Workshop received full financial support. Several other participants received partial support from their institutions or sponsoring agencies.

The working language was Spanish. Dr. Ruben Lara Lara of

the Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research (IAI),

Professor Joseph P. Stoltman, Department of Geography, Western Michigan University, and Professor Josefina Ostuni, Department of Geography, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, served as co-organizers of the Workshop.

Plan for the Workshop

The Workshop was designed to include planing and informational sessions, scientific plenaries, writing and reporting activities, field studies, and social events.

The mix of activities was deemed important since nearly all of the participants would be working together for the first time and the format of a science education writing workshop would be new to many of them. Also, the educational level of Science for Understanding Tomorrow's World: Global Change was upper secondary and beginning university students in chemistry, biology, geography, earth science, and general science studies.

The participants also included scientists, science teachers, and ministry of education science education specialists. The range of diversity in curricula made it necessary for the participants to identify where the global change materials would fit best in different Latin American countries in general. This took discussion and presentation of ideas and information from the participants representing the different countries.

The participants, after considerable planning, identified writing tasks.

The major goal was to:

Design and write a science education activity based on global change research in Latin America that complements and strengthens the materials included in the ICSU sponsored publication entitled "Science for Understanding Tomorrow's World: Global Change".

Specific expectations were established. They were to:

1. Prepare a new materials for inclusion in Science for Understanding Tomorrow's World: Global Change.

2. Use research data on global change from Latin American to develop the new materials.

3. Complete a first draft of the new materials by the end of the Workshop.

Scientific Program

The Workshop was designed to be writing intensive with much of the participants' time devoted to the design and preparation of draft materials to enhance and supplement Science for Understanding Tomorrow's World: Global Change. In addition, a scientific program that complemented the writing task was planned and presented. It incorporated the following components:

1. An introductory plenary by Dr. Ruben Lara Lara on the mission, objectives, scientific projects underway, and international scientific cooperation in Latin America by the InterAmerican Institute for Global Change Research.

2. A plenary session by Dr. Jose Lozano on capacity building and its importance to the scientific and educational communities in Latin America: Global change, the research agenda of the International Geosphere Biosphere Programme, and the initiatives of separate countries.

3. A plenary session by Dr. Julia Martinez on the meteorological research that is underway in Mexico and its connection to the global change research agenda.

4. A plenary by Dr. Cecilia Conde on long term meteorological variability in Mexico and its significance to the global change research agenda.

5. Two scientific field studies: one was to the Andes in which long term variability in glacial and vegetation patterns was observed, along with the human dimension of land use and land cover change. The second was to the Mendoza region to study the impact of irrigation on changing the region, the natural hazards that affect the area, and human adjustments to the natural systems.

Overall, the balance of writing intensive sessions, plenary sessions, and scientific field study provided variety for the participants, but also enabled them to focus on the overall topic of global change research and its implications at several different scales of study.

Outcomes of the Workshop

Writing subcommittees were formed during the Workshop and each produced a first draft of a new activity for inclusion in the Spanish Edition of "Science for Understanding Tomorrow's World: Global Change". Each of the topics in the original English edition (Oceans; Atmosphere; Clues from the Past; Population and Land Use; Carbon Cycle; and Remote Sensing) were selected to receive updates, revisions, or newly added materials focusing upon Latin America. Writing groups convened and worked on their specific topics for approximately twelve hours each during the week. Drafts, including all illustrative materials, were presented to the organizers on the final day of the Workshop. The progress by each writing group was reported on to the Workshop participants on the final day. The writing groups also appointed coordinators to be responsible for reviewing and disseminating drafted materials to the writing team members.

Next Steps

The participants at the Workshop agreed that the important issue is the dissemination of the publication in Spanish to secondary and tertiary level teachers in Latin America. First among the steps was to develop a means to assure the editorial and publication work on the Spanish edition. A plan has been implemented for a sub committee to take responsibility for moving the Spanish edition towards fruition. A second group will search out opportunities to present the materials at professional meetings and conferences, through newsletter and journal reviews, and via personal contacts. A third approach will be to reach large groups of teachers at a single time during scientific conferences and congresses. Such an opportunity is forthcoming during the 2nd Conference of the International Council of Associations of Science Education (ICASE) in Mar del Plata, Argentina, from April 22 26, 1997. Approximately 600 science educators and scientists from Latin America are expected to attend the Conference. The Global Change materials prepared in Mendoza during the Workshop are to be highlighted during the ICASE Conference. Three objectives for participation in the ICASE meeting are:

1. to present the concept of Education in Global Change in the Latin American context;

2. to demonstrate lessons and activities from Global Change that are based on research; and

3. to suggest ways that the materials fit into the science curriculum in general in Latin America.

-------------------------------------------------------------
Topic                       Completed    Coordinator
                            Draft
Oceans                      x    Venecia Alvarez (Dominican
Republic)
Atmosphere                  x    Cecilia Concle (Mexico) 
Clues from the Past         x    Valaria Candia (Chile) 
Population and Land Use     x    Luis Aragon (Brazil) 
Remote Sensing              x    Gloria Zamarano (Argentina) 
Carbon Cycle                x    Luis VanShakmann (Chile)

In addition, a new topic on the economic aspects of global
change was proposed by the participants. A subcommittee has
been appointed and a draft of an activity based on the topic
is planned.
--------------------------------------------------------------

Summary and Recommendations

The Workshop in Mendoza has set in progress the preparation of materials that are judged by the participants to be valuable for inclusion in the curricula in Latin American countries. They were deemed to be especially helpful to teachers in that they were self-contained and ready to use and that the global change topics included in the publication could be selected and used several different places in the curriculum, depending upon the country and the age of the students. Based on the outcomes of the Workshop and the commitment of the participants to take the publication to the print stage, the following recommendations are extended.

1. that the InterAmerican Institute for Global Change (IAI) become the coordinating organization for the next stages in the project.

2. that an advisory committee be established by IAI to complete and coordinate the necessary steps in the process.

Science for Understanding Tomorrow's World: Global Change meets a particularly urgent need for educational materials in Latin America among teachers at both the secondary and university levels. The Workshop in Mendoza provided the first opportunity in realizing solutions to the needs for research based, science education materials on the issue of global change.

Cooperating Organizations

The following organizations provided support for the Workshop:

Committee on Science and Technology in Developing Countries -International Biosciences Network (COSTED-IBN), International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), International Geographical Union Commission on Education (IGUCGE), Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research (IAI), National Science Foundation (NSF), Swiss Forum for Climate and Global Change (ProClim), Organization of American States (OAS), and the Facultad de Filosofia y Letras, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (UNC).

LOOKING AHEAD

Workshop on the financing of Basic Research in Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union

Christine Glenday, on detail to ICSUfrom National Science

Foundation, USA

As a result of a recommendation by ICSU's Committee on Science in Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union (COMSCEE), ICSU will host a two day "Workshop on the Financing of Basic Research in Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union" at the ICSU headquarters on July 15-16, 1996. This workshop will be held in cooperation with the European Science Foundation, the European Commission, and the Association for the Promotion of Cooperation with Scientists from the New Independent State of the Former Soviet Union (INTAS). The meeting will be chaired by ICSU's President J.C.l. Dooge and will also be attended by UNESCO's new Assistant Director General for Science Dr. Maurizio laccarino and the Secretary General of the European Science Foundation Dr. Peter Fricker.

The establishment of new mechanisms for the support of fundamental scientific research in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union has occurred over the past five years as the result of major national political and economic reform. Although these countries inherited a similar scientific and administrative structure reflecting Soviet science policy, they have taken different approaches to the question of science reform overall, and in particular to the establishment of systems, including new foundations, for financing individual basic research with the use of competitive peer review.

The aim of this workshop is to bring together for the first time key representatives from scientific organizations in these countries to meet with international counterparts to address three important themes:

- political and financial support for new mechanisms to support basic research

- experience with the peer review system of evaluation

- international cooperation, including the necessity to improve coordination among funding agencies through different legal regulations and governmental procedures

- Russian Foundation for Basic Research

- Russian Foundation for the Humanities

- State Committee of Ukraine for Science, Technology and Industrial Policy

- Academy of Sciences of Moldova

- Ministry of Science and New Technologies of Kazakhstan

- Committee for Science and Technology of the Republic of Georgia

- Science Council of Lithuania

- Estonian Science Foundation

- Latvian Council of Sciences

- State Committee for Scientific Research of Poland (KBN)

- Bulgarian Academy of Sciences

- Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (OTKA)

- Slovenian Science Foundation

- Czech Grant Agency

- Slovak Grant Agency

A full report on the meeting will appear in the next issue of Sdence International.

8th Congress of the Panamerican Association for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (PABMB)

The 8th Congress of PABMB will take place in Pucon, Chile, from 16-21 November 1996.

For further information please write to:
Dr. J. Babu
8th PABMB Congress Secretariat Sociedad de Bioquimica y Biologia, Molecular de Chile, Casilla 16164, Santiago, Chile.
Fax (56 2) 271 3891 or 272 6006 E.mail: jbcbachi@abello.dic.uchile.cl http://sbch.conicyt.cl.9090 / sodedad/bioquiOl.htm#VHl.

--------------------------------------------------------------

Timetable for the 25th General Assembly of ICSU and Associated
Meetings, Washington D.C.
----------------------------------------------------------
Saturday, 21 September  09:00    Executive Board (for          
                                 members only) 
                                 Lunch 
                        14:00    EB continues

Sunday, 22 September    09:00    EB continues 
                                 Lunch 
                        14:00    EB continues

Monday, 23 September    09:00    35th General Committee (for   
                                   members only) 
                                 Lunch 
                        13:30    35th GC continues

Tuesday, 24 September   08:30    Scientific Symposium 
                   13:00 -14:00  Lunch 
                        14:00    Scientific Symposium          
                                   (continues) 
                   19:30 -20:30  25th General Assembly Opening 
                                   Ceremony, GA Item 1 
                        20:30    Reception

Wednesday, 25 September 08:30    GA: items 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7a 
                   12:45 -14:00  Lunch 
                        14:00    GA: Items 7b, c, d, 
                                 Item 8:5 Working Groups 
                      Evening    Finance Committee 
                                 Nominating Committee 
                                 Resolutions Committee

Thursday, 26 September  08:30    GA Item 9 
                   13:00 -14:30  Lunch 
                        14:30    GA: Items 10, 11, 12 
                      Evening    Finance Committee 
                                 Resolutions Committee

Friday, 27 September    08:30    GA Items 13, 14, 15 
                   10:30 -12:30  36th General Committee (for   
                                   members only) 
                   10:30 -12:30  Open Session on Electronic    
                                   Publishing 
                   13:00 -14:00  Lunch 
                        14:30    GA Items 16, 17, 18 
                      Evening    Closing Dinner
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CALENDAR

Calendar of forthcoming Events

August

05-10   IGU    The Hague    19th IGU General Assembly and 28th
             (Netherlands)   Geographical Congress             
                            

05-16   SCAR   Cambridge    24th Meeting of SCAR 
                  (UK)

08-17   IUCr    Seattle     17th IUCr General Assembly and
                 (USA)       International Congress

11-16  IUPAB   Amsterdam    12th IUPAB General Assembly &      
             (Netherlands)   International Biophysics Congress

                                   

16-22 IUPsyS    Montreal     General Assembly of IUPsyS and 
                (Canada)      26th International Congress of
                              Psychology

27-28   IUTAM    Kyoto       IUTAM General Assembly 
                (Japan)

28-05   URSI     Lille       25th General Assembly of URSI     
   Sept        (France)      

September

16-20   SCOR   Southampton   XXIII General Meeting of SCOR
                  (UK)

16-2   IUPAP    Uppsala      22nd General Assembly of IUPAP
               (Sweden)   

23     ICSU   Washington DC  35th Meeting of the General       
                 (USA)        Committee
                 

24     ICSU  Washington DC   Symposium on Science and Human
                 (USA)       Goals in the 21st Century

24-27  ICSU  Washington DC   25th General Assembly of ICSU
                (USA)

29-05  CODATA  Tsukuba       15th International CODATA 
   Oct         (Japan)       Conference

October

04-05  CODATA  Tsukuba       20th CODATA General Assembly
               (Japan)    

14-20   FID     Graz         48th FID Congress 
             (Austria) 

28-01  GCOS   (Canada)       6th JSTC Meeting of GCOS
   Nov 
--------------------------------------------------------------

Members of the ICSU General Committee for the period 1993-1996

Officers

President:          J.C.I. Dooge (1993)
Vice-Presidents:    H.A. Mooney (1993) Sun Hongfie (1993) 
Past President:     M.G.K. Menon (1993)
Secretary General:  L.J. Cohen (1993)
Treasurer:          M. Petit (1990)

Representatives of International Scientific Union Members

J. Andersen      IAU    (1994)    P. Coppens    IUCr    (1996) 
S. Ebashi      IUPHAR   (1994)    W. Schiehlen  IUTAM   (1993)
D. Hawksworth    IUBS   (1995)    H. Metzget    IUIS    (1992) 
P.J. Wyllie      IUGG   (1995)    J. Palis*     IMU     (1990) 
R. Colwell      IUMS    (1996)    A. Kotyk      IUBMB   (1991)
P. Bauer         URSI   (1993)    K. Pawlik     IUPsrS  (1992) 
A. Fischli       IUPAC  (1995)    M. Ito        IUPS    (1993) 
D. Ottoson       IBRO   (1993)    Y. Yamaguchi  IUPAP   (1994) 
W.S. Eyre        lUGS   (1992)    W.E.H. Blum   ISSS    (1993) 
B. Messerli      IGU    (1996)    A.C.T. North  IUPAB   (1994) 
E. Sunderland    IUAES  (1993)    E. Sober      IUHPS   (1996) 
A. Valyasevi    IUNS    (1993)

Representatives of National Scientific Members
  
D.A. Akyeampong* Ghana   (1993)   F. Gros       France  (1993) 
C.N.R. Rao       India   (1993)   D. Ben Sari   Morocco (1993) 
I. Karube        Japan   (1993)   F.S. Rowland  USA     (1993) 
K. Birkenmajer   Poland  (1993)   I. Lang*      Hungary (1986) 
I. Saavedra      Chile   (1993)   U.G. Cordani  Brazil  (1993) 
M.K. Mahmoud     Egypt   (1993)   S. Sabhasri   Thailand(1990) 
M.A. Epstein     UK      (1990)   I.M. Makarov  Russia  (1988) 
J.P. Schaer   Switzerland(1986)   Fangzhou Gu   China   (1993) 
K. Mokhele    South Africa(1993)  I. Smith      Canada  (1993) 
J.E. Fenstad     Norway  (1993)   G.I. Pearman Australia(1993) 
K. Thurau*       Germany (1990)   C.G. Gahmberg Finland (1993) 
A. Pefia         Mexico  (1993)

* = Ordinary Member of the Executive Board - H. Moritz, though
no longer a member of the GC, will continue to serve on the
Exccutive Board until the 25th General Assembly in September
1996.
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