Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery Medknow Publications on behalf of Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery ISSN: 0970-0358 EISSN: 1998-376x Vol. 44, Num. 1, 2011, pp. 29-35

Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery, Vol. 44, No. 1, January-April, 2011, pp. 29-35

Original Article

Spectrum of primary bone grafting in cranio maxillofacial trauma at a tertiary care centre in India

Arun Kumar Singh¹, Devi Prasad Mohapatra², Vijay Kumar¹

¹ Department of Plastic and reconstructive surgery, Chattrapati Shahuji Maharaj Medical University, Lucknow , Uttar Pradesh, India
² Department of Plastic Surgery, Jawaharlal Nehru Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Puducherry, India

Correspondence Address:
Devi Prasad Mohapatra
Department of Plastic surgery, SS Block, JIPMER, Puducherry, 605006
India
devimohapatra1@gmail.com

Code Number: pl11006

DOI: 10.4103/0970-0358.81444

Abstract

Keywords: Bone plate; calvarial bone grafts; craniomaxillofacial trauma; facial fractures; primary bone grafting

Background

The incidence of trauma is on the rise and so are the mortality and morbidities associated with it. The aetiology of these injuries vary from road traffic accidents, gunshot injuries, domestic violence, homicidal assault, fall from heights, industrial accidents, and miscellaneous causes, including blast injuries from fire crackers and domestic gas cylinder bursts. These patients frequently have complicated injuries involving the soft tissue and the craniofacial skeleton. Earlier most of the injuries were under diagnosed and treated at local hospital levels. The extent of bony injuries could not be assessed properly and such patients presented late with the resultant complications. The results were most disastrous in children, where the undiagnosed and mistreated injuries resulted in severe facial abnormalities, because of the dynamic growing structural nature of the pediatric facial skeleton. A proper referral system with availability of tertiary level care, has today resulted in the timely intervention for all such injuries, with accurate diagnosis, comprehensive evaluation, and definitive management. Assessment of bony injuries and loss of portions of facial skeleton has proved to be a challenge to the plastic surgeon from the reconstruction point of view. Autogenous bone grafts have been used extensively in reconstructive surgery of the craniofacial region for a long time. The use of autogenous primary bone grafts for the management of bony injuries with contour defects or concomitant loss of skeleton is a more recent promising technique for the management of craniomaxillofacial injuries, in the acute setting. The advantages of using bone grafts are manifold. They help in the early restoration of bone volume, with correction of the deformity. The varied spectrum in the use of primary bone grafts during the management of craniofacial injuries has been evaluated in the present study.

Materials and Methods

This study was conducted in the Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, of our hospital, in association with trauma centre. Sixty-two patients of craniomaxillofacial injuries were considered in this study from November 2007 to November 2009. All patients with a history of acute trauma resulting in facial soft tissue and skeletal fractures with or without bone loss were included in the study. Few patients were excluded from this study. These were, first, patients with associated multisystem trauma, including intra-abdominal, intra-thoracic, skeletal system, and intracranial injuries; second, patients with craniofacial injuries who had been managed previously with bone grafting and needed further management; third, patients with associated life-threatening illnesses including cardio-respiratory diseases, musculoskeletal pathologies, neurological diseases, and finally patients who did not give consent for the procedure.

A detailed preoperative assessment including a clinical examination and radiological evaluation was carried out in each patient, to ascertain the need for primary bone grafting. The patients were operated under either general or loco-regional anesthesia depending on either the severity of the injury, age of the patient, or the expected duration of surgery. The fractures involving the faciomaxillary skeleton were approached through the existing lacerations, where present, or through standard incisions like subciliary, gingivobuccal sulcus or coronal in cases of closed injuries. Bone grafts were harvested from different sites including the calvaria, olecranon process of the ulna, ribs, and iliac crest using the standard approaches. Bone grafts in the form of vascularised as well as non-vascularised outer table calvarial grafts, non-vascularised inner table calvarial grafts, bone chips, bone dust, split ribs, and partial thickness olecranon grafts, were used for skeletal correction for patients in this study [Figure - 1]. The inner table of the calvarium was harvested and used as a bone graft in patients having head injuries, who required concurrent cranioplasty. The calvarial bone graft was preferred in a majority of cases due to proximity to the affected site, abundance, and ease of harvest. Ribs were used as primary grafts where the cranial loss was extensive. The olecranon bone graft was preferred for the nasal dorsum overlay. The indications for primary bone grafting were correction of skeletal contour abnormalities, replacement of bone losses, and rigid fixation of the fracture segments [Figure - 2]. These grafts were either placed as an onlay graft or an inlay graft without any rigid fixation, or with an interfragmentary fixation using stainless steel wiring, or delayed absorbable synthetic braided sutures (polyglactin 910) or screws and miniplates. The inlay graft method was used for covering the frontal and maxillary sinuses where comminution and bone loss of the anterior wall had occurred. Here the edges of the bone graft were just wedged into the margins of the sinus wall. Where the sinus wall fracture had resulted in comminution of the bone without any bone loss and only a contour defect, the bone graft was placed as an onlay without any fixation. By doing this, it was ensured that the bone graft was lying snugly in the soft tissue pocket in close contact to the bone. Interfragmentary fixation of bone chips in children was performed with polyglactin sutures [Figure - 3]a. This obviated the need for removal of the hardware at a later date. Some fractures were reduced and skeletal stability was achieved with the bone graft fixed with screws to the fracture segments, where the bone graft behaved as an autologous bone plate. This method was utilized for unilateral mandibular body fractures [Figure - 4]. In all patients with comminuted craniofacial fractures, an attempt was made to utilize the bone fragments by fixing them either in their original places or as bone grafts in regions having more severe losses. An adequate, well-vascularised, soft tissue cover [Figure - 3]b was obtained in all cases, irrespective of the location of the fractures, number of grafts used or type of fixation obtained. All external wounds and incisions were closed meticulously. Drains were placed where required. Standard postoperative care, individualized to the type of injury, was instituted for all patients. The patients were called for follow-up at regular intervals. The OPD follow-up at one week, two weeks, four weeks, three months, and one year, included postoperative photographs in standard views, review X-rays of the face, orthopantomogram (OPG) as required, radioisotope bone scanning [Figure - 5]a and a follow-up CT scan [Figure - 5]b, c, d when required.

Results

The period of this study ranged from August 2007 to July 2009. Sixty-two patients with craniomaxillofacial injuries following trauma, requiring primary bone grafting, were considered in this study. Almost sixty-two percent of the patients (n = 38) belonged to the age group of 20 - 29 years. Eighty-nine percent of the patients (n = 55) were males and the rest (n = 7) females. Replacement of bone loss following craniofacial injuries was the chief indication for primary bone grafting. Fifty-seven percent of the patients (n = 32) required primary bone grafting for this indication only. Bone grafting for contour correction was done in 23 patients. Contour correction was performed in patients having impacted zygomatic body fractures, comminuted fractures of the frontal region, and anterior wall maxillary fractures. A bone graft was used for the purpose of rigid fixation of fracture segments, as an autologous bone plate, in four patients. Two of these patients had unilateral mandibular body fractures, one had a segmental mandibular body fracture with bone loss, and one of these patients had a mandibular parasymphyseal fracture. Thirty-two percent of the patients (n = 20) were operated under regional and local anesthesia. Patients with extensive injuries, including panfacial fractures, and children and patients expected to have prolonged surgery were considered and taken up for surgery under general anesthesia. The parietal calvaria overlying the non-dominant hemisphere was used as a source of bone graft in 49 patients. Two of these were vascularised, based on the superficial temporal artery. The calvarial graft was harvested in a few patients from the inner table of the calvaria, removed during craniectomy for the management of associated intracranial injuries [Figure - 6]. The olecranon bone grafts were preferred for nasal dorsum correction and used in seven patients. Split ribs were used as grafts for the correction of bone loss in the parietotemporal region, in two patients. The iliac crest outer table cortical graft was used in four patients for either restoration of the contour or replacement of bone loss. In addition bone dust and bone chips obtained during cranial bone graft harvest were also utilized for resurfacing of the residual defects during surgery over the craniofacial skeleton [Figure - 7].

Defects over the frontal region following comminuted fractures or bone loss in compounding injuries were replaced with calvarial outer table grafts [Figure - 8]. Smaller parietotemporal defects were resurfaced with calvarial outer table non-vascularised grafts. In two patients, larger defects were replaced with split rib grafts [Figure - 9]. In twelve patients, blowout fractures of the orbit were resurfaced with calvarial outer table non-vascularised grafts. The outer table of the ilium was used as a plate to resurface the orbital floor defect in one patient. Six calvarial outer table grafts were used to resurface contour defects of the zygoma, following impacted zygomatic fractures in patients presenting late. Of these, two were vascularised grafts based on the superficial temporal artery. Olecranon grafts were used in fractures involving the nasal dorsum. The outer table of the parietal calvaria was used for improving the dorsal nasal contour in two patients and for replacement of bone loss over the maxillary anterior wall in one. Mandible body and parasymphseal fractures were fixed with contoured bone plates designed from the calvarial outer table and screws. Five calvarial outer table non-vascularised grafts were used for this purpose.

The incidence of donor site complications was eleven percent (n = 7). Bone graft donor site complications included pain over the donor site, contour defect, and fracture of the bone graft during harvest. Pain was most commonly associated with the ribs, iliac crest, and olecranon harvest. The contour defect was noted following the iliac crest harvest, while the graft fracture occurred during the calvarial graft harvest. Recipient-site complications included graft fracture, infection, contour abnormalities, and resorption. These were seen in eight patients. The graft fracture was noted in patients during a follow-up CT scan. Persistent infection in the recipient site in one patient required graft and hardware removal. This patient had a compound fracture of the mandibular body opening into the skin, and had presented late. The average postoperative hospital stay for frontal and parietal fractures was seven days. Fractures located in the midface required a hospital stay averaging 7 - 15 days. This was attributed to the presence of associated injuries, tracheostomy or other systemic injuries. Nearly ninety-two percent of the patients were satisfied with the results [Figure - 10] and [Figure - 11].

Discussion

One of the earliest reports of bone grafting was in 1668; when Van Meekeren reported the use of canine calvarial bone to repair a cranial defect in a Russian soldier ^[1]. Ollier published his experiments with bone grafting and emphasized the importance of the periosteum ^[2] . Macewen demonstrated the use of autogenous rib grafts for the repair of mandible defects ^[2] . Barth suggested the term ′creeping substitution′ as the method of osseous regeneration after bone grafting ^[3] . Mowlem popularized the use of cancellous bone grafting in various clinical conditions ^[4] . Mau_claire, in 1908, discussed the use of the ilium to correct skull bone defects. This procedure was later popularized by Dingman and Clintock. ^[5] The calvarium was first used as an osteocutaneous flap by Muller and Koning in 1890. In 1920, Lecene described the use of split skull grafts in cranial reconstruction. Tessier popularized several harvesting techniques and uses of calvarial grafts ^[3] . The use of bone grafts in the surgery of the face has been reviewed by Converse and Campbell, ^[6] and in the reconstruction of a defective mandible by Branemark. ^[7] Bone grafts are frequently required in the management of complex wounds of the face, whether for replacement of true loss of bone (avulsive injuries) or in cases wherein comminuted and misplaced fragments need to be replaced or reinforced. ^[8],[9]

Several anatomical types of bone grafts are used in surgery. Most of these types of grafts have been discussed by Burwel (1994) and Czitrom and Gross (1992) ^[10],[11] . Skull bone grafting has been used in primary and secondary correction deformities of the craniofacial areas. ^[8],[9] The bone used for grafting may be cortical, cancellous or corticocancellous. The cancellous bone provides more space for faster revascularization. The cortical bone provides the best form of consolidation. The corticocancellous bone provides the best of both types of grafts ^[10],[12].The sources of bone grafts mentioned in various literatures include the ribs, iliac crest, calvarial bone, and tibia. Calvarial bone grafts can be developed into blocks, chips, paste, shaving grafts, and vascularised outer table grafts ^[8] . Blocks can be cut according to the defect to be reconstructed. Bone chips are harvested as particulate bone and placed into the defect ^[13] . Rapid vascularization is followed by solidification and incorporation of the graft. This process may take up to a year. The extracorporeal harvest of the bone graft from the inner table for craniofacial reconstruction, has limited mention in literature ^[14],[15] . Greene and colleagues have harvested and utilized bone dust from the inner surface of the calvarial bone flap during cranioplasty, for coverage of osseous defects ^[13] . Blocks of inner table grafts are harvested from the calvarial bone flap during cranioplasty and utilized to replace the missing bone. The frontal and upper cranial bone flaps are readily available sources for the inner table bone graft harvest, to restore continuity and contour of the frontal skeleton and orbital rim, as well as for facial skeletal reconstruction. The extracorporeal inner table calvarial bone graft harvest is not associated with the additional blood loss and other complications of the calvarial bone harvest like penetration of the inner table with dural puncture or inadvertent puncture of the dural venous sinuses, which leads to profuse hemorrhage. Bone paste can also be used to pack residual defects, cracks and crevices after bone grafting. Bone grafts have been used as autologous bone plates for the rigid fixation of fracture segments, especially in the mandible. ^[16]

Reconstruction of the facial skeleton with bone grafts gained popularity in World War I. The surgical dogma was against early or primary bone grafting and it stipulated waiting until soft tissue healing had occurred. More recently the use of bone grafts in the early setting has gained popularity. Gruss and colleagues have published extensively on their success with early bone grafting to stabilize and support soft tissues, and to decrease scar contracture and distortion. ^[17] At present, many surgeons advocate the use of primary bone grafting in the midface ^[17],[18] . Some surgeons also advocate immediate bone grafting of mandible defects ^[19] . According to a recent study ^[20] high density porous polyethylene (HDPP) was a frequently utilized material for reconstruction in facial fractures, although it is not immediately clear whether HDPP had been utilized for reconstruction of the facial skeleton, in the acute setting, in this study. Immediate bone grafting for craniomaxillofacial trauma, helps in the early restoration of bone volume along with correction of the deformity and also reduces the need for reconstruction using synthetic materials at a later period. Primary bone grafting for craniofacial skeletal injuries appears to be a simple procedure, which could be accomplished with limited instrumentation in an emergency set-up in most of the patients. The functional and aesthetic assessment of each of the patients managed with immediate autologous bone grafting revealed a low rate of disabilities and high degree of satisfaction, in this study.

Conclusion

Immediate autologous bone grafting for the management of complex craniofacial skeletal injuries is an attractive option. The sources of autologous bone grafts are plenty. With the availability of such a modality in the armamentarium of the reconstructive surgeon, a vastly improved outcome in the management of craniofacial skeletal injuries can be expected.

References

1.	Macewen W. The growth of bone. New York: Glasgow J Maclehose and sons; 1912.   Back to cited text no. 1
2.	Shebadi SE. Skull reconstruction with bone dust. Br J Plast Surg 1970;23:227.  Back to cited text no. 2
3.	Tessier P. Autogenous bone grafts taken from the calvarium for facial and cranial applications. Clin Plast Surg 1982;9:531.  Back to cited text no. 3  [PUBMED]
4.	Mowlem R. Bone grafting. Br J Plast Surg 1963;16:293.  Back to cited text no. 4  [PUBMED]
5.	Dingman R.O. Iliac bone cranioplasty. Plast Reconstr Surg, 1952, 9, 130-139  Back to cited text no. 5
6.	Converse J.M., Campbell R.M. Bone grafts in surgery of the face, Surg Clin North Am,1954, Apr, 375-401  Back to cited text no. 6
7.	Branemark PI, Lindstrom J, Hallen O, Briene U, Jeppeson PH, Ohman A. Reconstruction of the defective mandible. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg 1975;9:116-28.  Back to cited text no. 7
8.	Jackson IT, Adham M, Bite U, Marx R. Update On cranial bone grafts in craniofacial surgery. Ann Plast Surg 1987;18:37.  Back to cited text no. 8  [PUBMED]
9.	Jackson IT, Helden G, Marx R. Skull bone grafts in maxillofacial and craniofacial surgery. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1986;44:949-55.  Back to cited text no. 9  [PUBMED]  [FULLTEXT]
10.	Burwell RG. History of bone grafting and bone substitutes with special reference to osteogenic conduction. In: Urist MR, O'Connor BT, Burwell RG, editors. Bone grafts and derivatives. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann; 1994.  Back to cited text no. 10
11.	Czitrom AA, Gross AE. Allografts in orthopaedics practice. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1992.  Back to cited text no. 11
12.	Clark N, Birely B, Manson PN, Slezak S, Kolk CV, Robertson B. High energy ballistic and avulsive facial injuries: classification, patterns and an algorithm for primary reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg 1996;98:583-601.  Back to cited text no. 12
13.	Greene AK, Proctor M, Rogers GF. Primary grafting with autologous cranial particulate bone prevents osseus defects following frontoorbital advancement. Plast Reconstr Surg 2007;120:1603.  Back to cited text no. 13
14.	Singh AK, Mohapatra DP, Kumar V. The inner table calvarial bone graft harvest: A source of primary bone graft in the management of craniomaxillofacial skeletal injuries. Eur J Plast Surg 2010;33:297-301.  Back to cited text no. 14
15.	Jackson I. Commentary on "The inner table calvarial bone graft harvest: A source of primary bone graft in the management of craniomaxillofacial skeletal injuries". Eur J Plast Surg 2010;33:305.  Back to cited text no. 15
16.	Singh AK, Mohapatra DP, Kumar V. Rigid internal fixation of mandibular fractures using autologous bone grafts: The autologous bone plate. Eur J Plast Surg 2010;33:163-7.  Back to cited text no. 16
17.	Gruss JS, Mackinnon SE, Kassell EE, Copper PW. The role of primary bone grafting in complex craniomaxillofacial trauma. Plast Reconstr Surg 1985;15:17-24.  Back to cited text no. 17
18.	Manson PN, Crawley WA, Yaremchuk MJ, Rochman GM, Hoopes JE, French JH Jr. Midface fractures: advantages of immediate extended open reduction and bone grafting. Plast Reconstr Surg 1985;76:1.  Back to cited text no. 18  [PUBMED]
19.	Kusiak JF, Zins JE, Whitaker LA. The early revascularization of membranous bone. Plast Reconstr Surg 1985;76:510-6.  Back to cited text no. 19  [PUBMED]
20.	Hwang K, You SH. Analysis of facial bone fractures: An 11- year study of 2094 patients. Indian J Plast Surg 2010;43:42-8.  Back to cited text no. 20  [PUBMED]

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